IN  MEMOMAM 


NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS 

FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 


NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS 

FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

BY 

MRS.   LIDA  B.   McMURRY 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION 

BY 
CHARLES  A.   McMURRY 


||0tit 
THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 


All  rights  rtserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1905, 
Bv  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  clectrotyped.    Published      May,  1905. 


PREFACE 

THE  series  of  nature  study  lessons  furnished  in  this 
book  was  worked  out  in  the  class  room  and  in  out- 
door excursions  with  children. 

Most  of  the  lessons  are  studies  of  plant  and  animal 
life  as  it  presents  itself  in  one  locality;  but  the  ob- 
jects studied  are  found  in  most  temperate  regions, 
and  the  lessons  can  be  modified  to  suit  almost  any 
region  of  the  United  States. 

The  method  of  treatment  is  also  somewhat  fully 
indicated  by  questions  and  answers.  These  work 
out  more  fully  the  plan  for  primary  grades  outlined 
in  the  "Special  Method  in  Elementary  Science," 
which  also  contains  full  references  to  the  best  books 
and  helps  for  primary  grades. 

Many  of  these  lessons  were  originally  published 
as  a  part  of  the  first  edition  of  the  "  Special  Method 
in  Elementary  Science."  But  the  series  of  lessons 
is  now  enlarged  and  published  separately. 


54/174 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION ix 

PART   I.     ANIMAL  LIFE 

I.    THE  SHEPHERD  DOG 3 

II.    THE  CAT 13 

III.  THE  HORSE 19 

IV.  THE  Cow 30 

V.    THE  SHEEP •        •  37 

VI.    THE  Fox  SQUIRREL 43 

VII.    THE  LIFE  OF  A  GRAY  SQUIRREL        ...  48 

VIII.    OUR  MOUSE,  JIM 56 

IX.    THE  RABBIT  (COMMON  HARE)  61 

X.    THE  CHICKEN 69 

XI.    IDENTIFICATION  OF  BIRDS 86 

XII.    THE  ROBIN 91 

XIII.  THE  RED-HEADED  WOODPECKER        .        .        .  99 

XIV.  THE  COMMON  CROW   .        .                .        .        .109 
XV.    THE  SCREECH  OWL 113 

XVI.    THE  ENGLISH  SPARROW 120 

XVII.    CATERPILLARS                     122 


Vlll  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


XVIII.  THE  CABBAGE  BUTTERFLY         .        .        .        .129 

XIX.  THE  MILKWEED  CATERPILLAR  .        .        .        .131 

PART  II.     PLANT   LIFE 

I.  IDENTIFICATION  OF  FLOWERS     .        .        .        .141 

II.  THE  NASTURTIUM I42 

III.  THE  MORNING-GLORY 145 

IV.  THE  COMMON  BLUE  VIOLET      .        .        .        .152 
V.  THE  WILD  ROSE 160 

VI.  TREE  BUDS 164 

VII.  AUTUMN  LEAVES  AND  BUDS      .        .        .        .167 

VIII.  A  NUT  GAME i76 

IX.  THE  APPLE I77 

X.  THE  AUSTRIAN  PINE  ...  181 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  problem  of  working  out  suitable  nature  study 
lessons  for  primary  grades  involves  numerous  diffi- 
culties, which  can  best  be  solved  by  enthusiastic 
teachers  working  with  the  children.  It  is  only  thus 
that  the  broad  general  requirements  of  elementary 
science  instruction  can  be  adapted  to  the  immature 
minds  of  little  children. 

In  a  general  way  it  is  not  difficult  to  point  out  the 
requirements  of  this  study,  such  as  a  growing  in- 
terest in  plants,  animals,  and  weather  conditions,  and 
a  closer  habit  of  observation. 

But  a  selection  of  the  common  objects  upon  which 
to  focus  the  observations  of  children  and  the  manner 
of  directing  their  attention  to  these  objects  call  out 
the  best  skill  of  experienced  teachers. 

One  of  the  prepossessions  which  an  adult  teacher 
must  get  rid  of  in  dealing  with  children  in  the  midst 
of  nature  is  the  idea  of  system  and  classification  in 
science.  There  should  be  no  haste  to  reach  the 
wise  conclusions  of  the  scientists.  Children  are  more 
easily  and  properly  absorbed  in  the  objects  and  their 
surroundings,  and  there  will  be  plenty  of  time  later 


X  INTRODUCTION 

to  hunt  out  the  deeper  truths.  At  the  same  time, 
however,  children  should  gain  a  positive  enrichment 
of  knowledge  and  observation  and  should  give  ex- 
pression to  a  definite  fund  of  ideas  and  experience. 
In  other  words,  the  lessons  should  be  fruitful  in 
ideas  and  in  the  power  to  express  them. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  a  teacher  in  nature  study 
must  know  how  to  live  happily  and  companionably 
with  children  among  the  birds,  flowers,  insects,  and 
trees.  Merely  to  know  how  to  enjoy  an  excursion 
with  children  is  a  great  thing.  In  addition  to  this, 
one  must  learn  to  concentrate  the  children's  thoughts 
along  given  lines,  for  a  mere  chasing  after  chance 
birds  and  butterflies  will  not  answer.  Having  awak- 
ened the  attention  and  interest  of  children  in  certain 
lines,  it  is  necessary  to  lead  on  to  more  definite 
observations,  and,  sooner  or  later,  to  get  from  the 
children  a  clear  statement  of  facts. 

The  teacher's  questions  and  suggestions  are  de- 
signed to  throw  the  children  constantly  upon  their 
own  power  to  observe,  to  experiment,  to  find  out. 
Self -activity  and  thoughtfulness  may  be  stimulated 
at  every  turn,  and  the  foundation  may  be  laid  for 
an  alert  and  self-reliant  mind. 

It  is  natural  for  children  in  these  early  years  to 
observe,  but  the  teacher  should  lead  them  to  observe 


INTRODUCTION  XI 

more  closely,  to  inquire  more  definitely,  and  to  be 
inquisitive  about  many  important  things  which  they 
would  never  think  of  if  left  to  themselves. 

While  no  two  teachers  in  the  same  or  in  different 
neighborhoods  would  select  just  the  same  series  of 
topics  for  primary  grades,  there  is  still  great  advan- 
tage in  trying  to  pick  out  those  objects  which  seem 
to  be  best  suited  to  younger  children  and  to  give 
them  a  full  treatment.  Again,  while  the  treatment 
of  any  given  topic,  as  the  red  squirrel,  would  not  be 
the  same  with  any  two  teachers,  it  is  still  helpful  to 
young  teachers  to  see  how  an  experienced  primary 
teacher  has  handled  one  of  these  topics.  A  study 
of  such  lessons  by  younger  teachers  need  not  lead 
to  any  slavish  imitation  of  models,  but  it  may  give 
an  insight  into  the  spirit  and  method  of  those  who 
have  gained  success  by  experience  and  labor. 

CHARLES  A.  McMURRY. 

WINTER  PARK,  FLORIDA, 
January  6,  1905. 


PART  I 
ANIMAL  LIFE 


NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS 
FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

I 

THE  SHEPHERD   DOG 

How  many  have  seen  a  dog  driving  sheep  ?  How 
did  it  drive  them  ?  (Trotted  along  behind  them  ;  if 
one  lagged  or  went  out  of  the  way,  the  dog  barked  at 
it,  or,  if  necessary,  even  snapped  at  it.)  What  do  we 
call  a  dog  that  cares  for  sheep  ? 

Pupils'  aim :  we  shall  see  how  shepherd  dogs 
are  fitted  for  their  work  of  caring  for  sheep. 

Some  of  you  have  shepherd  dogs.  Do  they  know 
much  ?  How  do  you  know  ?  (Children  relate  what 
they  know  of  this  variety  of  dogs,  the  teacher  telling 
stories  from  her  own  experience  or  such  as  she  has 
read,  illustrating  their  sagacity.) 

When  I  was  a  little  girl  my  father  owned  a  shep- 
herd dog,  named  Prince.  We  were  all  very  fond  of 
him.  Our  home  was  a  long,  long  way  from  any 
neighbor,  and  in  the  daytime  our  sheep  grazed  on  a 

3 


4      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR  PRIMARY   GRADES 

great  pasture  which  was  as  large  as  this  whole  town. 
This  was  a  queer  pasture,  you  will  think,  when  I  tell 
you  that  there  was  no  fence  at  all  around  it;  and 
when  we  spoke  of  it  we  called  it  a  prairie.  Every 
morning  Prince  would  help  my  father  drive  the  sheep 
to  this  prairie.  A  place  was  found  where  the  grass 
was  good,  and  here  the  sheep  would  spend  the  day. 
One  of  their  number  wore  a  bell,  and  through  the 
day  we  could  hear  the  distant  tinkle  of  the  bell.  If 
for  any  length  of  time  we  failed  to  hear  it,  some  one 
went  with  Prince  to  the  prairie  to  see  what  was  the 
matter. 

At  night  my  father  would  call  Prince  and  say, 
"  Prince,  bring  up  the  sheep ; "  and  away  he  would 
trot,  alone,  the  very  instant  he  was  told  to  go.  He 
gathered  his  flock  together  and  drove  them  home. 
If  any  sheep  was  hurt  or  sick  so  it  could  not  go, 
Prince,  after  trying  to  get  it  along,  would  leave  it 
and  drive  home  the  others.  He  knew  just  how  fast 
the  sheep  could  go  without  becoming  tired  out,  and 
no  matter  how  many  rabbits  ran  across  his  path,  he 
never  left  the  sheep  to  chase  the  rabbits,  though  he 
enjoyed  nothing  better  when  by  himself.  On  reach- 
ing home,  had  a  sheep  been  left  behind,  Prince  would 
go  to  my  father,  look  up  into  his  face,  bark,  and  start 


THE    SHEPHERD    DOG  5 

toward  the  prairie.  We  always  knew  from  this  that 
something  was  wrong,  so  my  father  would  follow 
Prince  and  get  the  poor  sheep  home. 

Our  cattle  were  kept  in  a  fenced  pasture.  One 
Sunday,  on  returning  from  church,  we  saw  that  some 
strange  cattle  had  broken  into  this  pasture  and  were 
grazing  with  our  own.  The  gate  of  the  pasture  was 
opened  and  Prince  told  to  "drive  them  out."  He 
knew  our  own  cattle  well,  and  we  all  watched  him  as 
he  went  into  the  herd,  picked  out  one  by  one  the 
strange  cattle,  and  drove  them  to  the  gate. 

How  do  you  think  Prince  could  tell  which  cattle 
were  not  our  own?  (He  had  sharp  eyes.)  Have 
the  shepherd  dogs  that  you  know  sharp  eyes  ?  Why 
do  you  think  so?  Of  what  color  are  their  eyes? 
Do  all  the  dogs  which  you  know  have  eyes  of  this 
color?  Do  the  little  puppies  have  brown  eyes?  Are 
the  shepherd  dog's  eyes  larger  or  smaller  than  your 
own?  Of  the  same  shape?  Are  they  in  the  same 
part  of  the  face  as  your  own?  Tell  what  you 
have  learned  about  the  shepherd  dog's  eyes. 

But  when  Prince  started  out  for  the  sheep,  was  it 
his  eyes  that  told  him  where  they  were?  (No,  he 
could  not  see  them.)  How  did  he  know  where  they 
were?  (He  might  have  heard  the  bell.)  Could  he 


O       NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

hear  well,  do  you  think?  Do  your  dogs  hear  well? 
(Children  relate  their  experiences.)  What  does  your 
dog  do  first  when  you  call  him?  (Pricks up  his  ears.) 
Why  ?  (So  that  he  may  catch  all  of  the  sound  that 
he  can.)  Can  you  prick  up  your  ears?  (Our  ears 
stand  out  so  that  we  can  catch  the  sound  easily  with- 
out moving  them.)  Where  does  the  sound  which  the 
dog  catches  go?  (Through  the  openings  in  the  side 
of  his  head.)  Did  you  ever  look  into  these  open- 
ings ?  What  is  to  hinder  flies,  bugs,  dust,  etc.,  from 
going  far  into  them  ?  (Shepherd  dogs'  ears  droop 
over  these  openings,  and  hair  covers  them  largely.) 
How  is  it  with  your  ears?  What  keeps  insects  out? 
Where  on  the  dog's  head  do  you  find  his  ears?  Are 
they  higher  up  or  lower  down  than  our  own?  How 
many  ears  has  he?  Why  does  he  need  two? 

Tell  now  all  you  can  about  a  shepherd  dog's  ears. 

But  Prince  sometimes  could  neither  see  nor  hear 
the  sheep,  yet  he  started  off  in  the  right  direction. 
How  did  he  know  where  to  go?  He  might  have 
remembered.  But  if  he  had  not  remembered,  quite 
likely  he  could  have  found  them.  Have  you  ever 
seen  a  dog  that  was  lost  from  his  master?  What 
did  he  do?  (Put  his  nose  down  close  to  the  ground.) 
Why?  (To  scent  the  tracks  of  his  master.)  Can 


THE    SHEPHERD    DOG  / 

your  shepherd  dog  smell  well?  What  about  the 
nose  would  make  you  think  that  he  can  smell  well  ? 
(Yes,  it  is  long,  and  pointed,  and  has  large  holes.) 
We  call  these  holes  nostrils. 

Now,  tell  how  a  shepherd  dog  might  find  the 
sheep  when  he  could  neither  see  nor  hear  them. 

Prince  had  to  go  for  the  sheep  in  rainy  as  well  as 
in  pleasant  weather.  He  had  no  rubber  coat  or 
umbrella.  How  did  he  keep  off  the  rain?  (He  had 
a  good  hair  coat.)  Why  do  you  call  it  a  good  coat  ? 
(Shepherd  dogs  have  thick  hair  all  over  the  body.) 
What  did  he  do  with  his  coat  in  pleasant  weather  ? 
Of  what  use  was  it  to  him  then?  (Kept  him  warm.) 
Did  he  wear  such  a  coat  in  summer?  Why?  (To 
help  keep  bugs,  flies,  etc.,  from  biting  him.)  Is  not 
the  winter  coat  too  thick  for  summer?  What  is  done 
about  it?  How  do  you  know?  (We  do  not  like  to 
handle  the  dog  or  have  him  in  the  house  in  the 
spring  and  summer  when  he  is  shedding  his  coat.) 
Is  the  hair  next  the  body  like  that  on  the  outside  ? 
Do  you  think  this  is  well  for  the  dog  ?  Is  a  shepherd 
dog's  hair  the  same  length  all  over  his  body  ?  Why 
shorter  on  the  legs  ?  Why  on  the  face  ?  Are  there 
any  bare  places  on  his  face  ?  Do  the  flies  ever 
bother  him  here?  How  does  he  get  them  off? 


8   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

(Shakes  his  head  or  brushes  them  off  with  his  paw. 
Sometimes  he  sleeps  with  his  paw  over  the  end  of 
his  nose.) 

No  matter  how  fast  Prince  ran,  his  coat  never 
looked  wet  with  sweat.  Did  you  ever  think  of  it  — 
that  your  dogs  do  not  sweat  as  do  horses,  or  as  you 
do?  How  do  you  think  Prince  showed  that  he  was 
very  warm?  (He  hung  out  his  tongue;  something 
that  looked  like  water  ran  off  from  it.)  Do  you 
suppose  that  this  cooled  him  off?  Put  your  fingers 
into  your  mouth,  then  hold  them  up  in  the  air  a 
minute.  What  happens?  (They  get  cold.)  What 
happens  when  the  wind  blows  on  the  dog's  wet 
tongue?  (It  cools  him.) 

What  is  the  color  of  the  coat  of  a  shepherd  dog  ? 
Prince's  coat  was  black,  with  a  white  collar,  a  white 
star  in  his  forehead,  and  white  toes. 

You  may  tell,  now,  all  you  can  about  a  shepherd 
dog's  coat. 

The  road  over  which  Prince  went  was  a  rough 
one  ;  quite  stony,  too,  in  one  place.  Why  did  not 
his  feet  become  sore  ?  Notice  whether  the  bottoms 
of  his  feet  touch  the  ground  as  do  yours  when 
you  walk.  [Have  a  shepherd  dog  in  the  class  if 
possible ;  if  not,  another  dog  will  do.]  What  part 


THE   SHEPHERD    DOG  9 

touches  the  ground  ?  (Only  his  toes  and  the  ball 
of  his  foot.)  On  how  many  toes  does  he  walk  ? 
Look  at  the  dog's  foot.  Picture  one  of  the  front 
feet,  also  one  of  the  hind  feet.  Has  the  dog  a  toe 
answering  to  your  thumb  ?  Point  to  it.  One 
answering  to  your  big  toe  ?  Point  to  it.  Where 
are  his  heels  ?  Feel  of  them.  Some  child,  quite 
likely,  may  have  on  low  shoes.  Call  attention  to 
the  great  tendon  of  Achilles  which  lifts  the  heel. 
Where  do  we  find  this  in  the  dog's  hind  legs  ? 
Where  is  his  heel?  Look  at  these  toes  on  which 
the  dog  walks.  Feel  of  the  part  that  touches  the 
ground.  (It  is  almost  as  tough  as  leather.  Each 
toe  and  the  ball  of  the  foot  has  a  cushion  with  a 
very  thick  cover.)  Do  you  think  that  the  stones 
hurt  Prince  ?  Does  the  dog  make  much  noise  in 
running?  Why  not?  Listen  as  he  runs  over  the 
floor.  What  do  you  hear  ?  Now  you  may  tell  all 
you  can  about  a  shepherd  dog's  feet. 

When  Prince  came  home  at  night  we  used  to  pet 
him.  In  what  way,  do  you  think?  Do  you  think 
he  liked  to  be  petted?  How  would  he  show  that 
he  liked  it  ?  What  was  he  telling  us  ? 

In  what  other  way  do  you  think  we  showed  that 
we  cared  for  Prince  ?  (Gave  him  a  good  dinner.) 


10      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

What  do  dogs  like  best  to  eat?  How  do  they  eat 
the  meat  ?  (Swallow  large  pieces  without  chewing. 
They  sometimes  hold  the  meat  down  with  their  front 
feet,  or  hands,  while  they  pull  off  pieces  of  it.) 
What  part  that  we  never  eat  do  they  eat  ?  (Bones.) 

[Bring  a  gentle  dog  to  the  class  and  examine  its 
teeth.]  What  are  these  long,  sharp  teeth  for  ?  Have 
you  such  teeth  ?  Show  me  that  you  have.  Are  they 
longer  or  shorter  than  those  of  the  dog  ?  What  are 
these  smaller  front  teeth  of  the  dog  for?  How 
many  ?  Have  you  such  teeth  ?  Where  ?  With  what 
teeth  does  the  dog  chew  the  bones  ?  Are  they  good 
teeth  for  that  ?  What  do  dogs  do  with  bones  left 
from  a  meal  ?  (Bury  them.)  Why  ?  Where  ?  How 
do  they  make  the  hole  in  which  to  bury  them  ? 
Which  claws  do  they  use  ?  What  kind  of  claws 
does  a  dog  need  to  dig  with  ?  (Strong  claws.) 
Why?  (So  they  will  not  break.)  What  shape 
must  they  be?  Look  at  the  shepherd  dog's  claws 
and  find  if  they  are  strong  and  slightly  curved. 
How  does  he  cover  the  hole?  Notice  carefully. 
How  get  the  bones  from  the  hole? 

We  also  set  a  pan  of  water  where  Prince  could 
get  it.  How  did  he  drink  it?  Watch  your  dogs 
drink  water  and  tell  just  how  they  do  it.  Do 


THE    SHEPHERD    DOG  II 

dogs  drink  much  water  ?  How  much  at  a  time  ? 
Sometimes  they  suffer  because  their  masters  forget 
that  they  need  water. 

Not  long  after  Prince  had  had  his  dinner  he  went 
to  bed.  What  kind  of  bed  does  a  dog  like  ?  Did 
you  ever  watch  a  dog  lie  down  in  his  bed  ?  What 
does  it  do  ?  Children  report  later,  if  not  ready  now. 

Did  you  ever  hear  a  dog  talk  ?  Prince  was  a  good 
talker,  after  his  fashion,  and  we  could  understand 
what  he  meant,  usually.  In  what  ways  do  you  think 
he  talked?  ((a)  He  growled  when  he  did  not  like 
what  he  saw  or  heard,  (b)  He  barked  hard  and 
long  when  he  wished  to  drive  animals  away,  (c)  He 
barked  short,  happy  barks  when  he  was  glad  to  see 
us.  (d)  He  whined  when  not  allowed  to  follow  us 
into  the  house,  (i)  He  snarled  at  any  one  who  tried 
to  get  his  food  away  from  him,  or  at  a  tramp. 
(/)  He  howled  when  left  at  home  alone,  (g)  He 
yelped  when  he  was  hurt.) 

He  had  a  way  of  talking,  also,  without  making  a 
sound.  How  was  that?  (By  moving  his  tail.)  What 
did  his  tail  tell?  (When  he  wagged  his  tail,  it  told 
us  that  he  was  pleased,  or  that  he  thought  we  were 
going  to  give  him  something  that  he  liked.  Dogs 
wag  their  tails  just  before  they  "  speak."  When  he 


12      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

was  frightened,  or  ashamed,  he  carried  his  tail  down 
between  his  legs.) 

The  children  might  review  the  whole  subject  of 
shepherd  dogs  by  going  with  Prince  after  the 
sheep. 

Do  you  think  shepherd  dogs  are  useful?  What 
have  we  found  that  they  can  do?  What  other  help- 
ful things  have  you  seen  them  do? 

Other  species  of  dogs  familiar  to  the  children  may 
be  studied  by  comparison  with  the  above,  thus :  — 

What  other  kind  of  dogs  do  you  know?  One 
has  a  rat-terrier.  How  many  have  seen  one  ? 
(Probably  all.)  How  does  a  rat-terrier  help  us  ? 
(Catches  rats.)  How  is  it  that  he  can  catch  rats 
better  than  a  shepherd  dog  can  ?  (a)  He  is  much 
smaller.  How  does  this  help  him?  (He  can  go 
under  piles  of  rubbish  and  into  holes  where  a 
shepherd  dog  could  not  go.)  (&)  He  is  quicker  in 
his  movements.  How  does  this  help?  (A  rat  runs 
fast.  A  dog  must  be  very  quick  to  catch  it.) 
(c)  His  cutting  and  biting  teeth  are  smaller  and 
sharper  than  those  of  a  shepherd  dog.  (d)  His  hair 
is  straight,  short,  and  stiff,  and  lies  down  close  to  his 
body,  so  he  can  more  easily  get  into  holes  than  the 
shepherd  dog  with  his  long,  thick,  curly  hair. 


THE    CAT  13 

How  true  a  friend  is  a  dog?  Tell  what  you  know 
about  this. 

What  do  you  think  of  him  as  a  playfellow?  Tell 
what  he  plays.  Tell  how  little  puppies  play. 

Tell  other  things  that  you  like  about  a  dog. 

II 

THE   CAT 

We  have  talked  of  the  usefulness  of  the  dog. 
What  other  animal  that  lives  about  the  house  is 
useful  ?  Of  what  use  is  the  cat  ?  Let  us  see  how 
it  is  fitted  for  catching  mice. 

How  does  the  cat  know  that  a  mouse  is  about? 
(Quite  likely  it  hears  it  gnawing.)  How  does  the 
cat  show  that  it  is  listening?  [If  the  children  have 
not  noticed  how  the  cat  shows  attention,  have  a  cat 
in  the  class.  A  child  scratches,  not  very  loud,  on  the 
wall.  Notice  the  effect  on  the  cat.]  How  does  it 
hold  its  ears?  Its  head?  How  does  it  show  that  it 
knows  from  what  direction  the  sound  comes?  What 
does  it  do  if  the  scratching  continues?  Notice  its 
eyes.  How  do  they  look?  Is  the  pupil  —  the  black 
part  in  the  center  —  large  or  small?  Could  the 
mouse,  without  seeing  kitty,  tell  that  she  is  coming 


14      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

over  the  floor?  Why  not?  How  can  she  move  so 
softly  ?  Notice  closely  the  cushions  on  her  feet. 
Which  moves  the  more  quietly,  the  dog  or  the  cat? 
Why  cannot  the  dog  move  over  the  floor  as  quietly  as 
the  cat?  (His  claws  touch  the  floor.)  When  a  cat 
has  found  the  hole  of  a  mouse,  and  knows  the  mouse 
is  within,  what  does  it  do  ?  How  long  do  you  think 
it  will  wait?  Does  it  stand  or  sit?  What  have  you 
noticed  about  its  tail  while  it  is  watching  for  the 
mouse?  How  does  it  catch  the  mouse?  We  saw  no 
claws  while  looking  at  kitty's  feet.  Where  were 
they?  What  reason  can  you  think  for  kitty  hav- 
ing claws  that  she  can  pull  in  when  she  chooses 
to  do  so?  (She  can  walk  so  softly  a  mouse 
cannot  hear  her;  her  claws  are  kept  from  being 
broken  or  dulled.)  What  have  you  that  corresponds 
to  the  cat's  claws?  What  care  do  you  have  to  give 
your  nails?  Why  cut  them?  Do  kitty's  nails  grow? 
What  does  she  do  to  keep  them  from  becoming  too 
long?  (Scratches  on  trees  or  other  wood.)  How 
does  the  shape  of  her  claws  fit  her  for  catching  and 
holding  a  mouse? 

Often  in  hunting  mice  cats  have  to  go  into  holes. 
They  have  a  way  of  telling  whether  or  not  the 
hole  is  too  small  for  their  bodies ;  what  is  it  ?  (The 


THE   CAT  15 

whiskers  extend  outward  a  long  way.  Any  hole 
which  is  so  large  that  the  whiskers  do  not  touch 
its  sides  is  wide  enough  for  the  body  of  the  cat 
to  pass  through.)  What  are  the  whiskers  sometimes 
called?  (Feelers.)  Why?  Notice  what  the  cat 
does  even  when  you  touch  her  whiskers  lightly. 
How  do  these  feelers  help  her  when  she  is  moving 
about  in  the  dark?  Some  people  think  cats  can 
see  well  in  the  dark,  but  we  are  told,  by  people  who 
should  know,  that  this  is  not  so,  hence  it  is  well 
that  cats  have  feelers  and  hear  well,  if  they  wish 
to  hunt  in  the  night.  The  cat's  eyes  are  queer. 
Notice  pussy's  eyes  when  the  sun  is  shining  brightly 
in  her  face.  What  are  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
pupil?  Why  does  so  little  of  it  show?  (The 
circular  curtain  —  which  gives  color  to  the  eye  — 
has  been  drawn  nearly  together  so  as  to  keep 
the  sun  from  hurting  the  eye.)  What  is  the 
color  of  this  curtain?  Is  it  of  the  same  color 
in  all  cats?  Notice  the  shape  of  the  pupil  when  it 
is  nearly  dark.  Why  is  the  pupil  so  large?  (The 
curtain  has  opened  wide,  to  let  in  much  light,  so 
that  the  cat  can  see  well.) 

What  besides  mice  does  the  cat  sometimes  catch? 
How  can  it  get  birds  ?     One  cat  catches  many  birds 


l6      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

in  a  season,  so  that  people  who  care  very  much  for 
birds  will  not  have  a  cat  about. 

What  else  do  cats  catch?  (Young  rabbits.) 
Where  do  they  find  these  ?  Watch  a  cat  as  she 
hunts  in  a  field  and  tell  what  you  notice  about  her. 

What  besides  little  animals  does  a  cat  find  to  eat 
out  of  doors?  (Catnip  and  fresh  grass.)  How  does 
she  eat  them?  With  what  teeth  does  she  nip 
them?  (The  small  front  teeth.)  [Show  a  good 
picture  of  a  cat's  open  mouth;  there  is  one  in 
"  Cats  and  Dogs,"  by  James  Johonnot.  Have  the 
pupils  notice,  also,  the  teeth  of  their  cats  at  home, 
if  they  have  gentle  cats.]  Of  what  use  are  the 
long,  strong  teeth  in  the  fore  part  of  each  jaw  ? 

We  have  been  speaking  of  the  food  which  the 
cat  gets  for  itself.  Do  the  pussies  you  love  have 
to  get  all  their  food  by  hunting  ?  What  do  you 
feed  them?  How  do  they  drink  milk?  Watch 
your  cat  to  see  how.  (It  is  very  difficult  to  see  just 
how  the  cat  laps  milk,  she  takes  it  up  so  fast.) 
What  else  does  she  lap  ? 

What  besides  milk  do  you  feed  the  cat?  How 
does  she  eat  meat?  Does  she  crush  bones  as 
the  dog  sometimes  does  ?  Notice  the  back  teeth 
to  see  if  they  are  fitted  for  crushing.  How  does 


THE    CAT  I/ 

she  get  meat  from  bones  ?  (She  laps  it  off.)  How 
can  she  do  this?  (Her  tongue  is  rough.  It  has 
little  hooks  on  it,  which  point  backward.)  What 
does  the  cat  do  if  you  take  her  meat  from  her  ? 
What  does  she  often  do  to  the  plate  after  eating 
all  the  food  from  it  ?  Look  at  the  plate  she 
has  lapped.  How  could  she  get  it  so  clean  ?  (Her 
rough  tongue  makes  a  good  dishcloth.)  How  does 
the  cat  ask  for  food  ? 

After  pussy  has  had  a  good  dinner,  what  does  she 
do  ?  (Sleeps.)  Where  does  she  like  to  sleep  in  the 
winter?  (By  the  stove  or  in  the  sun.)  How  does 
she  lie  as  she  sleeps?  Where  is  her  head?  Her 
tail?  In  the  summer  time  where  does  she  sleep? 
(Often  in  the  grass  in  the  shade  of  a  tree.)  Watch 
her  when  she  wakens.  What  does  she  do? 

Now  that  pussy  is  well  fed  and  wide  awake  she 
may  like  to  play.  What  have  you  seen  her  play? 
How  did  she  play? 

Does  your  cat  like  to  stay  in  the  house  all  of 
the  time  ?  How  does  she  ask  to  be  let  out  ?  Watch 
her  as  she  walks  off;  how  does  she  walk?  When  the 
weather  is  cold,  how  is  she  kept  warm?  Examine 
this  coat.  Put  your  fingers  into  it.  All  the  air  in 
the  coat  is  warm ;  that  helps  to  keep  the  cat  warm, 
c 


1 8       NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

Is  her  coat  of  the  same  thickness  in  the  summer? 
How  do  you  know  part  of  it  comes  out?  Stroke 
pussy's  fur  in  the  right  way;  how  does  she  like  it? 
How  do  you  know?  How  does  she  like  to  have  it 
stroked  the  other  way?  Why  is  it  well  for  pussy 
that  her  hair  extends  backward  and  downward?  (It 
sheds  the  rain.)  When  kitty  gets  in  out  of  the  rain, 
what  does  she  do?  Why  shake  herself?  What 
is  the  color  of  her  good  coat?  How  does  the  cat 
keep  it  clean  ?  Tell  how  she  washes  the  top  of  her 
head.  What  other  parts  does  she  wash  with  her 
paws  ? 

Sometimes  when  the  cat  is  out  walking  or  hunting 
she  gets  frightened.  At  what,  do  you  think?  What 
does  she  do  when  a  strange  dog  comes  toward  her? 
How  does  she  climb  a  tree?  What  does  the  dog  do? 
(Barks  and  puts  his  paws  up  against  the  tree  as  if  he 
were  going  to  climb  it.)  Why  doesn't  he  climb  the 
tree?  How  long  does  the  cat  stay  up  the  tree? 
After  the  dog  is  gone,  how  does  the  cat  get  down? 
Watch  her  and  tell.  Why  does  she  have  a  harder 
time  getting  down  than  up?  Remember  the  position 
and  shape  of  her  claws.  If  the  cat  cannot  find  a 
tree  to  climb  and  cannot  get  away  from  the  dog, 
how  does  she  defend  herself?  When  the  cat  gets 


THE   HORSE  19 

back  home,  how  does  she  ask  to  be  let  in?  How 
does  she  show  that  she  is  glad  to  see  you  ? 

We  have  been  talking  about  how  kitty  spends  the 
day.  What  do  you  do  with  her  at  night?  What 
kind  of  bed  do  you  give  her?  Where? 

You  have  not  told  about  the  cunning  kittens. 
Why  do  we  call  them  cunning?  How  does  the 
mother  feed  them?  How  keep  them  clean?  Tell 
how  they  play  with  their  mother.  How  do  they 
play  with  one  another?  How  does  the  mother 
carry  them? 

Have  a  reproduction  of  all  the  children  have 
learned  about  the  cat. 

Ill 

THE   HORSE 

We  have  been  learning  many  things  about  some 
of  our  animal  friends.  What  ones?  (The  dog  and 
the  cat.)  Can  you  think  of  any  other  animal  that 
does  very  much  -for  us?  (The  horse.)  How 
many  of  you  have  horses  at  home?  Tell  me 
some  of  the  things  your  horses  do  for  you.  Tell 
of  some  of  the  heavy  loads  you  have  seen  tthem 
haul.  Could  men  draw  such  loads  ?  How  is  it,  then, 


2O   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

that  horses  can  pull  so  much?  (They  are  very 
strong,  much  stronger  than  men.)  Do  they  often 
appear  unwilling  to  do  such  heavy  work?  Do  they 
work  very  long  at  a  time?  (Nearly  all  day,  often.) 
After  you  have  worked  a  little  while  you  become 
tired  and  stop  to  rest.  Do  horses  ever  need  to  rest? 
Can  they  stop  whenever  they  wish?  Why  not?  Do 
masters  think  about  their  horses  becoming  tired? 
(Kind  masters  do.)  The  children  have  probably 
noticed  horses  with  heavy  loads  being  stopped  on  the 
road  that  they  might  rest.  Is  there  any  danger  of 
putting  on  too  heavy  loads?  Children  have  no  doubt 
noticed  that  sometimes  horses  have  more  than  they 
can  well  draw.  How  do  the  horses  show  that  the 
load  is  too  heavy?  (By  trying  very  hard  to  pull  it.) 
Must  they  draw  the  too  heavy  load?  (Yes,  unless 
the  master  is  kind  enough  to  take  some  of  it  off.) 
Why  does  not  the  horse  refuse  to  draw  such  a  load? 
His  master  would  whip  him  and  make  him  do  it. 
What  do  you  think  of  treating  horses  in  that  way? 
Sometimes  horses  refuse  to  try  hard  to  pull  a  load. 
Have  you  ever  seen  horses  refusing  to  go?  What  do 
we  call  this?  (Balking.)  Have  you  noticed  the  size 
of  the  horses  that  are  kept  for  heavy  work?  (They 
are  very  large  and  have  strong,  heavy  legs.)  What 


THE   HORSE  21 

other  things   do   these   horses   do   for   us?     (Draw 
plows,  harrows,  reapers,  etc.) 

What  else  do  horses  do  for  us  besides  drawing 
heavy  loads?  (They  take  us  riding  in  carriages,  carts, 
and  sleighs.)  Why  do  you  not  drive  cows?  (They 
go  too  slowly.)  In  some  places  they  work  cows. 
Here  is  a  picture  of  some  oxen  taking  a  load  of  chil- 
dren to  a  picnic.  Where  oxen  are  used,  it  is  usually 
to  draw  heavy  loads,  not  to  take  people  out  for  the 
pleasure  of  a  ride.  When  you  are  out  riding,  do  you 
like  to  go  fast  or  slowly  ?  Do  the  horses  that  people 
drive  fast  look  just  like  those  they  use  for  heavy  work? 
(No,  they  have  lighter  bodies  and  their  legs  are  more 
slender.)  Why  are  such  horses  better  for  driving  ? 
Compare  movements  of  the  heavy  Newfoundland  dog 
with  those  of  the  light  rat-terrier  or  greyhound  to 
show  that  heavy  animals  are  slower  in  their  move- 
ments than  the  lighter  ones.  Does  the  horse  seem 
to  enjoy  going  out  for  a  drive  ?  How  does  he  show 
that  he  enjoys  it  ?  How  do  horses  know  which  way 
you  wish  them  to  turn  ?  (If  the  driver  wishes  the 
horse  to  turn  to  the  right,  he  pulls  the  right  line.  If 
he  wishes  him  to  turn  to  the  left,  he  pulls  the  left 
line.  When  he  wishes  him  to  stop  he  pulls  both  lines 
and  says  "Whoa.")  How  can  the  lines  tell  the  horse 


22      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

where  and  when  to  turn  ?  (The  lines  are  fastened  to 
a  bit  in  the  horse's  mouth.)  Of  what  are  bits  made  ? 
How  do  they  look  ?  (Children  show  by  a  drawing.) 
Afterward,  if  any  child  has  never  seen  a  bit,  the 
teacher  shows  one,  explaining  how  and  where  the 
lines  are  fastened.  In  what  part  of  the  mouth  is 
the  bit  held  ?  [Children  observe  that  the  horse  has 
front  teeth  and  back  teeth,  and  that  between  the  two 
groups  of  teeth  there  is  quite  a  long  vacant  place. 
Into  this  the  bit  fits.  Children  show  place  for  bit 
by  diagram  on  the  board.  The  teacher  has  a  bridle 
in  the  class.]  What  is  this  I  have  here  ?  (A  bridle.) 
What  are  these  pieces  of  leather  for  ?  (To  hold  the 
bit  in  place.)  Notice  what  is  fastened  to  the  sides  of 
the  bridle.  (Two  square  or  oblong  leather  pieces.) 
Why  are  they  there  ?  (To  keep  the  horse  from  see- 
ing many  things.  He  might  become  frightened  at 
some  of  these  things.)  Without  these  blinders,  as 
these  pieces  are  called,  could  the  horse  see  things 
at  either  side  without  turning  his  head?  How  is 
that?  His  eyes  are  so  placed  in  his  head  that  he 
can  see  to  the  front  and  to  the  sides  also.  The  eyes 
are  far  apart  and  are  large.  Would  you  like  to  have 
to  look  straight  ahead  all  of  the  time  ?  Can  you  see 
things  to  the  right  and  left  without  turning  your 


THE    HORSE  23 

head  ?  (Not  well.)  Why  not  ?  Do  you  suppose  the 
horse  likes  to  have  his  view  of  the  sides  of  the  road 
cut  off  ?  Some  masters  have  their  bridles  made  with- 
out blinders.  What  do  you  think  of  that  ? 

But  horses  with  blinders,  and  horses  wholly  blind, 
sometimes  become  frightened.  What  could  frighten 
a  blind  horse?  (Sounds  of  cannon,  firecrackers, 
barking  of  dogs,  etc.)  Has  the  horse  good  ears  ? 
Tell  me  how  you  know.  On  what  part  of  his  head 
does  he  carry  his  ears  ?  What  shape  are  they  ?  Did 
you  ever  see  him  move  his  ears  ?  How  ?  When  ? 
Why  ?  Do  the  horse's  ears  ever  lie  down  ?  When  ? 
You  may  draw  the  horse's  head,  showing  where  his 
eyes  and  ears  are.  Where  shall  we  draw  the  ears  ? 
(Standing  up  side  by  side  from  the  top  of  his  head.) 
Look  closely  at  their  shape. 

We  all  know  how  to  guide  the  horse;  let  us  see 
how  he  pulls  a  buggy  or  sleigh.  Is  it  in  the  same 
way  that  you  pull  your  hand  sleds  and  express 
wagons?  (No,  we  pull  them  with  our  hands.  The 
horse  has  no  hands.)  No,  the  horse's  arms  are  his 
fore  legs,  and  it  cannot  take  hold  of  the  buggy  with 
them,  but  I  have  seen  children  draw  sleds  very  much 
as  your  horse  draws  your  sleigh  or  buggy.  How  is 
the  horse  fastened  to  the  sleigh?  [Children  explain 


24      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

from  observation.]  The  purpose  is  to  show  how  the 
pulling  is  mostly  done  by  the  breast  and  shoulders. 
In  the  same  way  children  sometimes,  in  drawing  a 
loaded  hand  sled,  have  a  rope  fastened  to  the 
two  sides  of  the  round  in  front;  this  they  put  over 
their  shoulders  so  that  the  weight  rests  there.  Any 
who  have  never  drawn  sleds  in  this  way  are  shown 
how.  Do  horses  get  tired  traveling  all  day  when  the 
load  is  light?  (Yes,  if  driven  fast.)  How  do  they 
show  that  they  are  tired?  (Go  slowly.)  Then  what 
does  the  driver  often  do?  (Whip  them  to  make 
them  go  faster.)  And  what  do  the  horses  do?  (Go 
faster.  They  have  to  do  as  the  driver  wishes,  and  if 
he  does  not  care  for  his  team  they  will  often  have  a 
hard  time.)  How  do  horses  show  that  they  have 
been  driven  too  rapidly?  (They  are  covered  with 
sweat,  even  in  cold  weather,  and  they  breathe  fast, 
the  breath  coming  from  their  great  nostrils  in  clouds.) 
What  care  should  they  receive  at  the  end  of  their 
journey  when  they  have  been  so  overdriven?  (They 
should  be  wiped  dry  with  a  cloth,  then  covered  with 
a  blanket.  They  should  not  be  given  much  water  to 
drink  at  first,  although  they  are  thirsty,  but  should 
wait  until  they  are  cooled  off.) 

How  else  besides   to  draw  heavy  loads  and  take 


THE    HORSE  25 

you  out  riding  are  horses  used?  (People  often  ride 
on  their  backs.)  Did  you  ever  ride  horseback?  Did 
the  horse  walk  when  you  were  on  its  back?  In  what 
other  ways  do  riding  horses  sometimes  move  along  ? 
(Sometimes  trot,  or  pace,  or  gallop.)  How  do  the 
horses'  feet  move  in  trotting  ?  Children  observe  that 
the  right  fore  foot  and  the  left  hind  foot  move 
forward  together.  How  do  the  horse's  feet  move  in 
pacing?  Children  see  that  the  two  right  feet  are 
raised  at  the  same  time,  then  the  two  left  feet. 
How  do  horses  gallop  ?  Children  notice  that  the 
fore  feet  are  lifted  together,  then  the  hind  feet. 
Can  you  tell  whether  a  horse  is  walking,  trotting, 
pacing,  or  galloping,  without  seeing  it  at  all?  (Yes, 
sometimes,  by  hearing  the  sound  of  its  feet  as  they 
come  down  on  the  ground.)  What  is  it  about  the 
foot  that  makes  this  noise  ?  (Its  hard  hoof  or  its 
shoe.)  What  is  this  hoof?  (The  horse's  toe  nail.) 
Of  what  shape  is  the  horse's  hoof  ?  Does  it  go  all 
the  way  around  the  toe?  Picture  its  shape  on  the 
board.  Where  is  the  hoof  the  broadest?  Where 
narrowest  ?  If  this  hoof  is  the  horse's  nail,  on  what 
does  a  horse  stand  ?  (On  its  toe  nail.)  What  kind 
of  toe  nails  must  these  be  that  they  may  hold  up  the 
heavy  body  of  the  horse  and  may  stand  being  brought 


26      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

against  the  hard  ground  or  pavement  ?  (They  must 
be  strong  and  hard.)  Should  you  not  think  that 
they  would  wear  off  ?  Look  at  horses'  hoofs.  (The 
lower  part  of  some  hoofs  looks  ragged.)  Do  you  ever 
lose  part  of  your  nails  ?  (Yes,  mamma  cuts  the  ends 
off.)  Then  do  they  stay  short  ?  (No,  they  grow  out 
again.)  So  the  horse's  hoofs  or  nails  wear  off  and 
grow  out  again  as  your  nails  do.  It  is  better  for 
the  horse  to  have  his  nails  trimmed,  as  you  have 
yours,  but  sometimes  they  are  allowed  to  grow 
rough  like  those  we  have  noticed. 

How  do  horses  keep  from  slipping  on  ice? 
(They  wear  iron  or  steel  shoes  usually.)  [Teacher 
has  a  shoe  in  the  class.]  How  are  these  shoes  put 
on  to  the  horse?  [Visit  a  blacksmith  shop  if  pos- 
sible.] Does  it  hurt  the  horse  to  have  the  shoes 
nailed  to  his  hoof  ?  Does  it  hurt  you  to  have  your 
finger  nails  cut?  Neither  does  it  hurt  the  horse 
to  have  nails  driven  into  his  hoofs.  How  many 
nails  are  put  in?  How  are  they  driven  through 
the  shoes?  [Children  notice  the  holes  for  nails, 
in  the  shoe.]  What  are  these  three  sharp  pieces  — 
two  at  the  heel  and  one  at  the  toe  —  extending 
downward?  (Calks.)  What  are  they  for?  (The 
horse  is  so  heavy  that  as  it  comes  down  with  its 


THE   HORSE  2/ 

weight  on  its  shoes,  these  pieces  cut  deeply  into 
the  ice,  keeping  the  horse  from  slipping.)  When 
a  horse  is  shod  with  such  sharp  shoes,  we  say  he 
is  rough  shod.  Look  at  the  tracks  of  horses  on  the 
ice.  What  do  you  see  ?  In  the  summer  or  during 
time  of  good  roads,  some  horses  wear  smooth  shoes, 
like  this  —  showing  one.  Feel  of  it.  We  said  before 
that  the  horse  was  rough  shod ;  we  might  now  say 
that  he  is  how  shod  ?  (Smooth  shod.) 

What  else  does  a  horse  use  his  feet  for  besides 
walking,  running,  etc.  ?  (He  strikes  with  them  to 
knock  off  flies.  He  kicks  his  enemies.)  Children 
give  examples.  How  else  does  he  protect  himself? 
(He  bites.) 

We  have  found  that  horses  can  be  driven  in  winter 
without  danger  of  falling.  But  do  they  not  get  very 
cold  without  overcoats?  (They  have  a  hair  coat.) 
We  will  call  the  skin  an  under  coat.  This  is  thick 
and  warm.  These  coats  keep  the  horse  warm  enough 
when  traveling.  What  shall  be  done  for  horses 
when  standing  waiting  for  us  ?  (They  should  be 
covered  with  blankets.)  What  protection  do  they 
need  in  cold  weather,  when  not  working  or  travel- 
ing? (A  good  warm  stable,  with  a  clean  straw  bed 
to  lie  on.) 


28       NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

Do  the  horses  wear  the  same  coat  winter  and  sum- 
mer? (In  the  spring  they  shed  their  old  coat  and 
keep  only  the  new  one  that  began  to  grow  out  the 
summer  before.  So  they  are  not  dressed  as  warm 
in  summer  as  in  winter.)  Children  relate  what  they 
know  of  the  horse  shedding  his  coat.  There  is 
other  hair  on  the  horse  which  protects  him  in  sum- 
mer. What  is  that?  (His  tail.)  How  does  the 
horse  use  his  tail  in  the  summer?  (To  brush  the  flies 
off.)  Where  else  is  the  hair  long  on  the  horse? 
(On  the  neck.)  What  do  we  call  the  long  hair 
there?  (A  mane.)  How  would  you  like  the  looks 
of  a  horse  without  a  mane? 

We  have  found  that  the  horse  does  a  great  deal 
for  us.  What  makes  him  strong  and  able  to  work? 
(Good  food.)  What  does  the  horse  like  to  get  in  the 
summer  time?  (Green  grass,  and  he  likes  to  be  out 
in  the  pasture  and  get  it  for  himself.)  How  does  he 
get  the  grass  into  his  mouth?  (By  the  aid  of  his 
thick  lips.)  And  how  does  he  bite  it  off?  Has  he 
or  has  he  not  teeth  in  his  upper  jaw?  Children 
observe  that  he  has.  After  he  has  the  grass  bitten 
off,  what  does  he  do?  (Chews  it.)  Notice  how 
his  jaws  move  in  chewing.  Up  and  down  or 
sidewise  ? 


THE    HORSE  2Q 

What  else  do  horses  eat  besides  grass  and  hay? 
(Straw,  fodder,  oats,  wheat,  corn,  and  carrots.)  How 
does  the  horse  eat  salt?  How  drink  water?  What 
other  animals  drink  in  the  same  way?  What  ones 
drink  differently?  Does  the  horse  drink  much? 
How  much?  How  often  should  he  be  watered? 
(It  is  best  to  have  water  in  the  pasture  so  the  horse 
can  get  it  whenever  he  wishes.)  If  the  horse  is 
being  driven,  water  him  often. 

How  does  the  horse  let  us  know  when  he  wants  to 
be  fed  or  watered?  (He  whinnies  or  neighs.)  Tell 
of  some  other  times  when  he  whinnies.  (If  his  mate 
is  taken  from  the  field  or  stable,  he  whinnies  for  it. 
That  is  the  way,  too,  the  mother  calls  her  little  colt. 
Horses  sometimes  whinny  for  their  masters,  too.) 

The  teacher  should  insist  on  the  children  making 
the  observations  for  themselves. 

Frequent  reproductions  by  topics  should  be  re- 
quired. Thus :  "  Tell  how  the  horses  are  kept  from 
slipping  on  the  ice."  "How  are  they  protected  from 
the  cold?" 


3O      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

IV 

THE  COW 

To  what  animal  did  the  old  woman  (in  the  story 
of  "The  Old  Woman  and  Her  Pig"1)  go  last  for 
help  ?  (To  the  cow.)  What  did  she  want  the  cow 
to  do  for  her?  (Give  her  some  milk.)  But  before 
the  cow  would  give  her  any  milk,  she  must  do  some- 
thing for  the  cow.  What  was  that  ?  (Give  her  some 
hay.)  How  much  did  she  give  her?  (An  armful.) 
Is  an  armful  of  hay  enough  to  last  a  cow  all  day  ? 
How  many  of  my  armfuls  do  you  think  it  would 
take  ?  Why  does  a  cow  need  so  much  to  eat  ?  (She 
is  large.)  As  large  as  a  shepherd  dog  ?  (Much  larger. 
A  shepherd  dog  could  walk  right  under  a  good-sized 
cow.)  Where  do  the  farmers  get  this  hay  that  the  cow 
likes  ?  Do  the  cows  ever  get  it  from  the  fields,  them- 
selves ?  When  ?  Did  you  ever  watch  a  cow  eating 
grass  ?  What  did  she  do  first  ?  (Put  her  head  down 
to  the  ground.)  Could  you  do  that?  (Yes,  if  I 
could  stand  as  a  cow  stands.)  Do  you  think  so? 
How  does  the  cow  stand  ?  On  what  ?  Its  toes,  as 
the  dog  does  ?  (No,  it  stands  on  the  nails  of  its 

1  "  Classic  Stories  for  the  Little  Ones."  Public-School  Publishing 
Co.,  Bloomington,  111. 


THE    COW  31 

third  and  fourth  fingers  and  toes.)  What  do  we  call 
these  nails  of  the  cow?  (Hoofs.)  Where  are  the 
nails  on  our  fingers  ?  (On  the  back  of  the  ends  of 
our  fingers.)  Where  are  the  nails  of  the  cow  ?  (Her 
nails  or  hoofs  go  all  the  way  around.)  Feel  of  them. 
(They  are  very  hard  and  thick.)  Does  she  need 
such  hoofs  ?  Why  ?  Notice  the  shape.  (They  look 
like  one  hoof  cut  in  two.)  Because  they  look  this 
way  we  say  the  cow  has  a  cloven  hoof.  Cloven 
means  cut  in  two,  but  we  know  that  she  has  two  nails 
or  hoofs  on  each  foot.  Now  you  know  how  the  cow 
stands.  How  is  it  ?  Does  the  cow  find  it  hard  to 
stand  ?  Can  she  reach  the  grass  on  the  ground  with 
ease  ?  How  does  she  gather  the  grass  ?  (She  reaches 
out  with  her  tongue  and  draws  a  wisp  into  her  mouth, 
and  nips  it  off  with  her  teeth.)  What  kind  of  tongue 
has  she  ?  (A  long,  limber,  rough  one.)  Why  does 
it  need  to  be  so  long  ?  Why  limber  ?  Why  rough  ? 
What  else  does  she  use  in  gathering  the  grass  ? 
(Her  thick,  broad  lips.)  [These  answers  should  be 
the  result  of  the  child's  careful  observations.]  How 
does  she  bite  off  the  grass  ?  (With  her  front  teeth.) 
Have  you  noticed  anything  strange  about  these  front 
teeth  ?  (The  cow  has  no  front  teeth  in  her  upper 
jaw.)  How  then  can  she  bite  off  the  grass?  (The 


32      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

upper  front  jaw  is  very  hard,  almost  as  hard  as  a 
bone.)  Does  she  eat  rapidly  ?  How  long  does  she 
chew  on  a  mouthful  of  grass  ?  Does  she  keep  on 
eating  all  day  at  this  rate  ?  (No ;  after  a  while  she 
lies  down,  or  stands  and  rests.)  Did  you  ever  notice 
how  a  cow  lies  down  ?  Does  she  lie  down  as  the 
dog  does  ?  What  does  she  do  first  ?  Then  what  ? 
If  you  watch  her  mouth  while  she  is  lying  down  or 
standing,  if  at  rest,  what  will  you  find  her  doing  ? 
(Chewing  her  cud.)  What  is  this  cud,  and  where 
does  it  come  from?  I  will  tell  you.  Where  does 
your  food  go  after  you  swallow  it?  (Into  the 
stomach.)  Now,  a  cow  has  a  very  large  stomach. 
The  grass  which  she  bites  off  she  chews  but  a  lit- 
tle, if  any.  She  swallows  it,  and  it  goes  into  a 
room  in  this  big  stomach,  where  it  soaks  for  a 
while.  Watch  a  cow's  throat  a  little  while  after 
she  lies  down,  and  tell  what  you  see.  (Something 
going  up  her  throat  toward  her  mouth.)  This 
is  a  little  of  the  soaked  grass  going  up  to  be  well 
chewed.  We  now  call  it  a  cud.  What  becomes 
of  this  cud?  (After  it  is  chewed  up  fine,  the 
cow  swallows  it  and  it  goes  into  another  part  of 
this  big  stomach.)  Then  what?  (Another  cud  goes 
up  to  be  chewed  in  the  same  way,  and  so  on.)  Do 


THE    COW  33 

the  cow's  jaws  move  as  yours  do  when  chewing  ? 
How  do  yours  move  ?  (The  upper  jaw  does  not 
move.  The  lower  jaw  moves  chiefly  up  and  down.) 
Do  the  cow's  jaws  move  in  that  way?  (Her  upper 
jaw  does  not  move,  but  her  lower  jaw  moves  from  one 
side  to  the  other.)  What  does  this  sidewise  motion 
of  the  lower  teeth  on  the  upper  teeth  do  for  the  grass? 
(Grinds  it  up.  It  is  her  mill  in  motion.)  Which 
teeth  do  the  grinding  ?  (The  back  teeth.)  Let  us 
see  if  they  are  good  grinders.  [Have  jaw  of  cow 
if  possible.]  (They  are  broad,  flat,  and  hard.) 
Is  it  a  good  thing  that  the  cow  can  pack  away  her 
food,  and  chew  it  when  at  rest?  (Yes.  She  can 
gather  grass  in  the  cool  of  the  day,  then  lie  down  in 
the  shade  when  the  sun  is  hot,  and  eat  it.  She  does 
not  have  to  stand  as  much  as  she  otherwise  would, 
but  can  rest  while  eating.) 

In  the  winter  time,  what  does  the  cow  eat  instead 
of  grass?  (Hay,  straw,  and  fodder.)  She  eats  these 
as  she  does  the  grass,  i.e.  chews  them  slightly,  swal- 
lows, then  re-chews  as  a  cud.  What  besides  grass, 
hay,  and  straw  does  the  cow  like  to  eat?  (Corn.) 
How  does  she  get  hold  of  the  ears  of  corn?  How 
does  she  eat  corn  ?  What  becomes  of  the  cob  ? 
What  else  does  the  cow  like?  (Oats,  meal,  and  bran.) 


34      NATURE   STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

How  does  she  eat  them?  What  is  bran?  Can  you 
think  of  anything  else  we  feed  the  cow?  (Carrots, 
turnips,  beets.)  How  does  she  eat  them?  Anything 
else?  (Salt.)  Do  we  salt  the  cow  often?  How 
does  she  eat  it  ? 

Can  you  think  of  something  else  she  would  want  ? 
(Water.)  How  often  should  a  cow  be  watered? 
Does  she  lap  up  the  water  as  the  dog  does?  How, 
then,  does  she  drink  ? 

[All  these  answers  made  by  the  children  should  be 
the  result  of  their  own  observations.] 

Is  there  anything  we  can  do  for  the  cow  in  the 
summer,  besides  feeding  her  well  ?  (Give  her  a 
pasture  in  which  there  are  trees  or  a  shed  to  protect 
her  from  the  hot  sun.)  And  in  the  winter,  what? 
(Give  her  good  shelter  from  the  cold  and  snow,  and 
a  good  straw  bed  at  night.)  But  has  she  not  a  hair 
coat  to  keep  off  the  cold  and  snow?  (This  coat 
helps,  but  it  is  not  thick  enough  to  keep  her  warm  in 
bad  weather.)  Is  it  as  thick  as  the  horse's  coat  ? 
Are  the  hairs  of  the  same  length  as  his  ?  Are  they 
as  fine?  Does  she  wear  the  same  coat  in  summer 
and  winter,  or  has  she  a  lighter  coat  in  the  summer  ? 
How  do  you  know?  Is  her  coat  the  same  color  as 
that  of  the  horse?  We  do  not  often  see  the  cow's 


THE    COW  35 

coat  wet  from  sweating.  When  she  gets  warm,  she 
opens  her  mouth,  lolls  out  her  tongue,  and  pants, 
much  as  the  dog  does.  In  the  winter  you  can  see 
the  steam  coming  from  her  great  nostrils.  Have 
you  noticed  these  nostrils  ? 

Where  is  the  hair  longest  on  the  cow?  (On  end 
of  tail.)  What  use  does  she  make  of  this  long  brush? 
But  she  cannot  keep  the  flies  off  her  neck  and 
shoulders,  even  with  so  long  a  brush.  (She  drives 
them  off  by  tossing  her  head  about.)  How  does 
she  keep  them  off  her  feet  and  fore  legs?  (Stamps 
her  feet.)  Children  speak  of  the  trouble  of  milking 
cows  in  summer  on  account  of  flies. 

Can  you  think  of  any  other  way  she  has  of  driving 
away  things  that  bother  her?  Does  she  bark  or  bite, 
as  the  dog  does?  (She  has  horns  to  hook  with.) 
[Have  a  horn  in  the  class  if  possible.]  Can  she  hurt 
with  such  horns?  (Yes,  the  outside  is  very  hard,  and 
they  are  strong  and  sharp-pointed.)  From  what  part 
of  the  head  do  they  grow?  Is  that  a  good  place  for 
them?  Why  do  you  think  so?  How  does  she  use 
them?  When?  (Not  so  often  to  defend  herself  as 
to  protect  her  calf.  She  is  very  fond  of  it.)  Did 
you  ever  see  her  drive  away  dogs?  How  else  does 
she  show  that  she  is  fond  of  her  calf?  (She  cries  for 


36      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

it  if  it  is  taken  away.  She  licks  it  with  her  tongue. 
That  is  the  only  way  she  has  of  kissing  it.  She 
stands  still  for  it  to  get  its  dinner.)  Do  you  think 
the  little  calf  pretty?  What  do  you  like  about  its 
looks?  (It  has  pretty  eyes  for  one  thing;  so  has  its 
mother.) 

We  have  found  many  things  that  we  can  do  for 
the  cow,  now  we  shall  see  what  she  does  for  us. 
What  does  she  give  us  night  and  morning?  How  do 
we  get  the  milk?  Which  gives  the  more,  the  cow 
kindly  cared  for,  or  the  cow  poorly  housed  and  fed? 
For  what  do  we  use  milk?  Do  we  get  cream  from 
the  cow?  Do  you  see  it  when  she  is  being  milked? 
(No,  we  only  see  the  milk.)  Where  do  we  get  the 
cream?  (It  rises  on  the  milk.)  What  is  made 
from  cream?  (Butter.)  How  is  butter  made?  [If 
possible,  watch  the  process.]  What  is  made  from 
cream  and  milk?  (Cheese  and  cottage  cheese.) 
What  else  is  cream  used  for?  (Ice  cream,  etc.) 


THE   SHEEP  37 


THE   SHEEP 
(By  COMPARISON  WITH  THE  Cow) 

What  other  animals,  besides  cows  and  calves  and 
horses,  have  you  seen  grazing  in  pastures  ?  (Sheep.) 
Have  all  seen  sheep  ?  [If  any  are  unfamiliar  with 
them,  a  visit  should  be  made  to  one ;  or,  better,  to  a 
flock.  Perhaps  some  child  may  have  a  pet  lamb, 
which,  like  Mary's  in  the  poem,  might  follow  her 
"to  school  one  day."  This  would  afford  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  close  study.] 

Watch  the  sheep  as  it  eats  grass.  What  does  it 
do  ?  How  does  it  bite  off  the  grass  ?  (With  its 
front  teeth.)  Look  at  these  front  teeth.  [The  chil- 
dren might  do  this  at  home  and  report  the  following 
day.  They  discover  that  the  sheep  has  no  teeth  in 
the  front  part  of  its  upper  jaw.]  What  other  animal 
have  you  found  lacking  teeth  here  ?  (The  cow.) 

See  how  long  the  sheep  chews  the  grass  before 
swallowing.  What  are  these  sheep  over  here  doing  ? 
(Lying  down  and  chewing  their  cuds.)  What  will 
these  sheep  that  are  eating  so  rapidly  now  do  by  and 
by  ?  What  other  animal  eats  grass  in  the  same  way  ? 
(The  cow.)  From  what  you  know  of  the  cow's  cud, 


38   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

tell  how  you  think  the  sheep  gets  its  cud  ?  [Chil- 
dren review  process  of  rumination  in  the  cow.  If 
this  study  is  taken  up  in  the  winter  time,  the  children 
observe  the  sheep  eating  hay  instead  of  grass.] 

Which  eats  the  grass  off  the  shorter,  the  cow  or 
the  sheep  ?  Why  can  the  sheep  do  this  ? 

Does  the  sheep  eat  corn  in  the  same  way  that  a 
cow  eats  it?  [Children  name  any  differences  that 
they  may  have  observed.]  (A  sheep  nibbles  off  the 
kernels.)  Watch  it  and  see  how  it  does  this.  What 
else  does  it  eat?  Does  it  eat  carrots,  turnips,  and 
beets,  as  a  cow  eats  them  ?  What  difference  ?  Does 
it  hold  the  food  down  with  its  foot,  as  the  dog  some- 
times does,  when  eating  its  food?  How  do  sheep 
eat  salt  ?  How  drink  water  ? 

Notice  how  lightly  the  sheep  step  about.  Let  us 
look  at  their  little  feet.  What  do  you  find  ?  (They, 
like  the  cow,  walk  on  their  toe  nails  —  two  on  each 
foot.) 

Did  you  ever  think  how  much  the  cow  and  the 
sheep  are  alike?  They  surely  must  be  cousins. 
Name  those  points  in  which  they  are  alike. 

(a)  Both  have  cloven  hoofs  (walk  on  toe  nails). 

(b)  Both  lack  teeth  in  front  part  of  the  upper  jaw. 

(c)  Both  chew  the  cud. 


THE    SHEEP  39 

Are  they  unlike  in  any  ways  ?  Look  at  the  two  as 
they  graze  side  by  side.  How  can  you  tell  them 
apart?  (The  cow  is  much  larger  than  the  sheep. 
The  sheep  could  run  under  the  cow.  The  sheep  is 
nearer  the  size  of  the  shepherd  dog.) 

If  both  were  of  the  same  size,  could  you  tell  them 
apart  by  their  looks  ?  (The  sheep  has  a  wool  coat, 
the  cow  a  hair  coat.)  Is  there  any  other  difference 
in  these  coats,  except  that  one  is  wool  and  the  other 
hair  ?  (The  sheep's  coat  is  usually  white  —  occasion- 
ally brown ;  the  cow's  coat  may  be  white,  red,  black, 
or  spotted.)  Is  there  not  still  another  difference 
between  the  sheep's  coat  and  that  of  the  cow  ?  (The 
sheep's  wool  coat  is  much  thicker  than  the  cow's 
hair  coat.)  Let  us  look  closely  at  this  wool  coat. 
Have  wool  in  the  class.  Each  child  may  pick  some 
to  pieces  and  see  if  it  is  at  all  like  the  cow's  hair 
coat.  (It  is  hair,  only  the  hairs  are  much  finer  than 
those  of  the  cow,  and  they  are  wavy  and  seem  to 
be  fastened  together,  so  that  it  is  hard  to  pull  them 
apart.)  Stretch  one  of  these  fine  hairs.  What  about 
its  length  now  ?  (It  is  much  longer  than  it  looks  to 
be  when  on  the  sheep.)  Does  the  wool  lie  down  on 
the  sheep's  body  in  the  same  way  that  the  hair  lies 
down  on  the  cow's  body  ? 


4O      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

You  have  said  that  the  sheep  and  cow  are 
unlike  in  size,  and  wear  different  kinds  of  coats. 
If  the  sheep  were  the  same  size  as  the  cow  and 
wore  the  same  kind  of  a  coat,  could  you  tell  them 
apart?  (Not  many  sheep  have  horns.)  Do  all  cows 
have  horns  ?  (Many  have  none.)  Could  you  tell 
them  apart  by  the  looks  of  their  horns?  Look  at 
the  sheep  with  horns  and  the  cow  with  horns  and  see. 
(The  cow's  horns  are  round,  quite  smooth,  and 
pointed.  They  usually  start  out  from  the  head  in 
opposite  directions,  then  curve  inward  and  forward 
so  it  can  hook  with  them.)  [Children  show  by  draw- 
ing at  the  board.]  The  sheep's  horns  grow  back- 
ward and  downward,  often  forming  a  curl.  They 
are  not  round,  and  are  rough.  [Children  draw  a 
sheep's  head  to  show  how  its  horns  look.]  Can  you 
think  why  it  is  well  that  the  sheep's  horns  do  not 
stand  out  in  front  of  its  head  ?  (Sheep  crowd  close 
together  in  the  fold  at  night,  or  when  frightened, 
and  sharp-pointed  horns  such  as  the  cow  has  would 
be  apt  to  injure  other  sheep.) 

How  can  sheep  keep  away  their  enemies  with 
such  horns,  or  no  horns  at  all,  as  in  most  cases  ? 
[Children  relate  any  experience  of  their  own,  or  such 
as  they  have  heard,  of  the  terrible  blow  given  by 


THE   SHEEP  41 

a  sheep  with  its  head,  butting.  The  large  horned 
sheep  are  usually  willing  to  do  the  fighting  for  a 
flock.  They  are  no  cowards.  The  teacher  might 
relate  instances  showing  the  bravery  of  the  rams  in 
defending  a  flock.]  Have  you  ever  noticed  a  mother 
sheep  when  a  dog  came  near  her  lamb  ?  What  did 
she  do  to  show  her  anger?  (Stamped  her  foot.) 
And  if  the  dog  came  nearer,  what  did  she  do  ?  She 
can  fight  to  save  her  baby  from  harm,  even  though 
she  has  no  horns.  You  may  tell  again  of  some  dif- 
ference between  the  horns  of  the  sheep  and  the  cow. 

In  how  many  points  have  we  found  the  sheep 
different  in  looks  from  the  cow? 

If  the  sheep  were  like  the  cow  in  size,  wore  the 
same  kind  of  coat,  and  had  the  same  kind  of  horns, 
could  you  still  tell  them  apart?  Look  closely  at 
the  animals'  and  see.  (The  end  of  a  cow's  nose  is 
wide  and  bare.  Its  nostrils  are  far  apart.  The 
sheep's  nose  is  more  pointed.  There  is  hair  on 
the  end  of  its  nose,  and  its  nostrils  are  quite  close 
together.) 

Let  us  name  the  difference  in  looks  between  the 
sheep  and  the  cow.  (a)  The  sheep  is  smaller  than 
the  cow.  (fr)  It  wears  a  wool  coat,  while  the  cow 
wears  a  hair  coat,  (c)  The  sheep's  horns  are  differ- 


42   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

ent  from  those  of  the  cow.  [Children  explain.] 
(d)  Their  noses  are  different.  [Children  explain.] 

But  I  might  be  able  to  tell  a  sheep  from  a  cow 
without  looking  at  one.  How?  (By  its  cry.  A 
sheep  says,  "  Baa."  A  cow  says,  "  Moo."  We  call 
a  sheep's  cry  a  bleat,  and  the  cow's  a  low.)  When  do 
we  hear  the  sheep  bleating  a  great  deal?  (In  the 
spring  when  the  lambs  are  little.)  And  how  do  the 
lambs  answer  their  mothers'  calls  ?  The  sheep  bleat 
also  when  they  are  hungry  or  thirsty.  So  we  can  tell 
sheep  and  cows  apart  both  by  seeing  and  by  hearing 
them.  The  scent  of  the  sheep  is  also  peculiar. 

We  found  that  the  cow  does  a  great  deal  for  us. 
Is  the  sheep  also  our  good  friend?  What  does  it  do 
for  us  ?  (Its  wool  is  made  into  blankets  for  our  beds, 
warm  shawls,  cloaks,  coats,  etc.)  [Children  show 
garments  made  of  wool.]  How  do  we  get  it  from  the 
sheep  ?  (Men  cut  it  off  with  great  sheep  shears.) 
How  often?  But  is  it  not  very  dirty  after  being  worn 
without  change  for  a  whole  year?  [Children  tell 
about  sheep  washing,  which  occurs  a  few  days  before 
the  shearing.  If  none  have  seen  the  process,  the 
teacher  explains  and  shows  pictures.]  Then,  when 
their  wool  becomes  dry,  what  is  done  ?  [Children 
who  have  seen  sheep  sheared  explain  how  the  coat  is 


THE   FOX    SQUIRREL  43 

taken  off,  and  how  packed  away.  The  teacher  shows 
good  pictures  to  those  who  have  never  seen  this  done. 
Show  sheep  shears,  explaining  how  they  are  worked.] 
An  explanation  of  the  making  of  wool  into  cloth  is 
given  later. 

Which  does  the  most  for  us,  the  sheep,  the  cow, 
the  horse,  the  cat,  or  the  shepherd  dog  ?  Which  one 
do  you  like  best  for  a  pet  ? 

VI 

THE   FOX   SQUIRREL 
(A  WINTER  STUDY) 

It  is  supposed  that  this  study  will  be  carried  on 
with  classes  of  children  who  have  often  seen  this 
squirrel,  and  are  to  some  extent  acquainted  with  its 
habits.  A  live  squirrel,  if  possible,  will  be  brought 
into  the  class  whenever  facts  in  regard  to  structure 
need  proof. 

The  following  questions  may  be  asked  for  the 
purpose  of  finding  out  how  much  the  children  already 
know  about  the  animal :  Where  have  you  seen  fox 
squirrels  ?  How  could  you  tell  them  from  other 
squirrels  ?  Their  color  is  orange  (or  red)  and  gray. 
What  have  you  seen  them  doing?  Did  you  ever  visit 


44      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

at  one  of   their  homes  ?     Where  was  it  ?     How  did 
you  reach  it  ?     How  was  it  furnished  ? 

We  will  see  if  we  cannot  become  better  acquainted 
with  this  lively  little  fellow. 

Have  you  seen  any  this  winter  ?  Was  it  on  a  very 
cold  or  a  mild  day  ?  At  what  time  of  day  ?  What 
was  it  doing  ?  Watch  closely  and  see  if  you  can  find 
out.  Can  you  ever  tell  that  a  squirrel  has  been  out, 
even  though  no  one  has  seen  it  ?  How  ?  What 
kind  of  tracks  does  it  leave  in  the  snow?  Notice 
them  so  carefully  that  you  can  draw  them  on  the 
board.  If  you  were  to  follow  these  tracks,  what 
might  you  find?  (The  squirrel's  home.)  We  will 
not  disturb  him,  but  sometime  when  the  house  is 
empty  we  will  climb  up  and  peep  in  and  see  if  he 
has  a  comfortable  home.  The  children,  quite  likely, 
may  find  the  nest  in  a  hollow  of  a  tree.  It  is  lined 
with  leaves  and  moss,  perhaps.  How  many  rooms? 
(Only  one  —  a  bedroom.)  Does  one  squirrel  live 
here  alone?  There  is  a  whole  family  of  them, 
quite  likely  —  father,  mother,  and  two  or  three 
children.  Perhaps  you  can  find  out  how  they  pack 
themselves  away  in  this  snug  home.  Did  the 
squirrels  dig  out  this  hole  in  the  tree?  Why 
do  you  think  they  did  not  ?  Why  should  they 


THE   FOX    SQUIRREL  45 

choose  such  a  place  as  this?  Did  you  ever  see 
squirrels  out  house  hunting?  Did  you  ever  see 
them  fitting  up  their  home?  How  did  they  carry 
the  leaves  and  moss?  How  many  of  the  family 
worked?  At  what  time  of  year  was  it?  Do  they 
have  a  door  to  their  house?  How,  then,  do  they 
keep  out  the  wind  and  the  snow?  Is  there  a 
furnace  or  a  stove  in  this  house?  How,  then,  can 
they  keep  warm?  (They  wear  very  warm  fur  coats.) 
Without  a  squirrel,  the  study  of  this  covering  can 
be  made  from  a  dried  pelt.  Is  there  more  than 
one  coat?  Notice  the  inner  coat.  It  is  very  soft 
and  compact,  a  dark  drab  next  to  the  skin,  re- 
sembling cotton  batting.  What  does  this  coat  do 
for  the  squirrel?  Notice  the  outer  coat.  This  coat 
is  coarser  and  not  so  compact.  Do  the  hairs  stand 
straight  out  from  the  body,  or  do  they  lie  down? 
What  is  the  use  of  this  coat?  Which  coat  gives  the 
color  to  the  animal?  Notice  these  long  hairs  in 
which  the  dark  and  light  alternate.  Which  color 
is  at  the  tip  of  the  hairs? 

These  are  not  the  squirrel's  only  protection  from 
the  cold.  What  besides?  (He  carries  with  him  a 
beautiful  fur  cloak  —  his  tail  or  brush  —  which  he 
wraps  about  him  when  he  lies  down  to  sleep.)  Call 


46      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

attention  to  the  richness  of  coloring  in  this  cloak. 
The  upper  part  in  this  specimen  before  me  is  a 
beautiful  combination  of  black  and  orange,  the 
orange  tipping  every  hair  —  while  the  under  part 
(which  is  the  upper  part  most  of  the  time)  is  a  light 
orange. 

We  have  found  that  the  squirrels  are  very  com- 
fortable even  in  cold  weather.  But  are  a  good 
home  and  warm  clothes  all  that  are  necessary  to 
keep  them  alive?  (They  need  food.)  What  do 
squirrels  eat?  How  can  they  get  these  after  the 
fruit  and  corn  are  gathered  and  the  nuts  which 
remain  on  the  ground  in  the  woods  are  covered 
with  snow?  (They  stored  up  food  in  a  pantry  in 
another  hole  in  a  tree,  not  far  from  their  sleeping 
room.)  Did  you  ever  see  them  gather  nuts  for  the 
winter?  How  did  they  carry  them  to  their  pantry? 
How  many  worked  at  this?  Did  you  ever  come 
across  their  store  of  nuts?  Did  you  examine  it? 
How  good  a  selection  had  they  made?  Were  there 
any  wormy  ones  among  them?  How  do  you  think 
they  discover  that  a  nut  is  not  sound? 

How  do  the  squirrels  spend  most  of  the  time  in 
the  winter?  Why  do  you  think  so?  When  they 
waken  and  are  hungry,  how  do  they  get  their 


THE   FOX    SQUIRREL  47 

meals?  (Scamper  off  to  the  pantry.)  Do  they  eat 
at  the  pantry,  or  bring  the  nuts  back  to  the  bed- 
room? How  do  they  hold  the  nuts  when  eating? 
How  get  at  the  meat?  (Show  shells  from  which  the 
squirrels  have  taken  the  meats.)  What  kind  of 
teeth  must  they  have  to  gnaw  into  the  shell  in  this 
way?  Do  they  chew  their  food?  With  what  teeth? 
[If  possible,  examine  these  teeth.  The  skull  of  the 
squirrel  would  be  of  much  service  here.]  What  is 
the  movement  of  the  jaw?  Is  it  well  for  the 
squirrel's  teeth  that  he  does  not  sleep  all  winter? 
What  would  be  the  harm  if  he  were  to  do  so?  (His 
teeth  keep  growing.  He  needs  to  keep  them  worn 
off  at  the  tip  that  they  may  not  become  too  long.) 

We  know  a  little  about  the  winter  life  of  this 
pretty  squirrel.  Its  summer  life  is  even  more  in- 
teresting. Let  us  find  out  all  that  we  can  about 
that,  next  term.  See  how  early  in  the  spring  it 
begins  its  work  and  play.  We  will  find  out,  if  we 
can,  what  its  summer  work  is,  and  what  games  it 
plays. 


48       NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

VII 

THE   FIRST   THREE    MONTHS   IN    THE 
LIFE   OF   A   GRAY   SQUIRREL 

(SPENT  IN  A  SCHOOLROOM) 

Our  school  children  had  the  rare  opportunity  in 
the  spring  of  '97  of  observing  three  gray  squirrels, 
from  the  time  of  their  birth. 

We  had  had  the  mother  of  these  babies  for 
about  six  weeks,  when,  on  Monday  morning,  March 
15,  our  janitor  found  in  the  cage  five  little  squirrels. 
Two  died  shortly  after  birth.  The  little  squirrels 
were  perfectly  naked,  not  a  hair  on  the  whole  body. 
The  bodies  of  the  two  largest  were  two  inches 
long,  the  tails  one  and  one  fourth  inches  long,  and 
the  legs  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long.  They  were 
very  dark  red,  with  the  heads  darker  than  the 
body.  The  ears  were  no  larger  than  radish  or 
flax  seeds.  Their  eyes  were  as  large  as  sweet  peas, 
but  were  closed  tightly.  Their  toe  nails  were  black, 
with  a  white  tip,  and  were  well  developed. 

The  mother  purred  to  them  harshly.  The  babies 
mewed  —  a  single  mew  at  a  time ;  their  voices 
sounded  like  those  of  kittens.  We  saw  two  of  them 
getting  their  dinner  the  second  morning.  Their 


THE    LIFE    OF    A    GRAY    SQUIRREL  49 

front  feet  moved  in  a  happy  way  while  nursing. 
We  made  them  a  nest  of  cotton  in  a  box  when 
they  first  came.  Their  mother  tore  up  much  paper 
and  added  to  this  nest. 

When  they  were  a  week  old  their  bodies  had 
become  plumper,  and  they  had  begun  to  bleach 
out.  We  took  one  of  the  little  ones  from  the  cage. 
It  squealed  like  a  little  pig,  —  such  a  big  voice 
for  such  a  tiny  creature !  The  mother,  Fanny,  was 
very  tame.  We  patted  her  and  handled  her  con- 
siderably when  the  squirrels  were  a  week  old,  with- 
out any  disposition  on  her  part  to  bite. 

When  a  week  and  a  half  old,  the  little  ones  be- 
gan to  squeak  like  mice  whenever  things  did  not 
go  to  suit  them  in  their  home.  Their  little  ears 
began  to  stand  out.  The  mother,  when  she  feared 
some  one  was  going  to  hurt  one  of  her  babies, 
planted  her  front  feet  firmly  upon  its  body. 

When  three  weeks  old,  the  lids  to  the  eyes  had 
become  plainly  differentiated.  The  body  had 
changed  in  color  to  a  dark  gray,  and  gray  hairs 
began  to  show.  They  were  thickest  on  the  head. 
The  head  looked  very  large  in  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  body.  The  ears  were  now  standing  out 
stiffly.  Ten  days  previous  to  this  the  squirrels  had 


50      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

been  taken  to  the  home  of  one  of  our  teachers 
to  spend  the  vacation.  Fanny  was  frightened  at 
being  moved,  and  when  her  cage  was  set  down  in 
the  new  quarters,  and  the  box  containing  her  little 
ones  was  put  in,  she  grabbed  up  one  little  one  at 
a  time  and  lapped  it.  She  seemed  to  be  examin- 
ing them  to  see  if  any  harm  had  come  to  them. 
At  the  close  of  the  vacation  they  were  three  times 
as  large,  at  least,  as  at  the  beginning  of  it. 

When  three  and  a  half  weeks  old  the  little 
squirrels  had  become  very  active.  Hair  covered  all 
of  the  body  excepting  the  belly  and  the  inner  side 
of  the  legs.  These  parts  were  still  perfectly  bare. 
The  tail  had  grown  to  be  quite  large.  The  order 
in  which  the  hair  appeared  was  this  —  on  head,  on 
body,  on  outer  part  of  thigh,  on  outer  part  of  leg. 
The  mother's  call  sounded  like  a  buzz  saw. 

When  four  and  a  half  weeks  old  the  eyelids  were 
much  swollen  and  looked  to  be  about  ready  to 
open.  The  head  of  the  squirrels  still  seemed  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  size  of  their  bodies.  For 
several  days  previous  to  this,  rusty  hairs  had  been 
noticeable  on  the  squirrels'  heads,  mixed  with  the 
gray,  and  now  a  rusty  line  showed  low  down  on  each 
side  of  their  bodies.  While  the  outside  of  the 


THE   LIFE   OF    A    GRAY   SQUIRREL  51 

mother's  ear  is  white,  theirs  was  gray.  Their  tails 
were  now  becoming  very  hairy.  They  still  con- 
tinued to  do  nothing  but  sleep,  eat,  and  squirm. 
They  were  never  quiet.  For  two  days  previous  to 
this  time  Fanny  had  seemed  very  uneasy.  She 
jumped  out  of  the  nest  and  called  her  young,  but 
they  made  no  move  to  follow  her.  On  this  day 
she  had  many  times  taken  up  one  of  the  babies  in 
her  mouth  and  lapped  and  handled  it,  especially  the 
latter.  We  put  much  cotton  into  the  cage  so  they 
might  not  suffer  were  she  to  take  them  from  the 
box.  When  lifting  one,  she  usually  grasped  it  by 
a  leg,  or  the  skin  on  the  back  of  its  body  —  far  back. 

When  five  weeks  old  the  under  part  of  the  body 
and  inner  part  of  the  leg  were  thickly  covered  with 
white  hairs. 

When  five  and  a  half  weeks  old  we  found  each 
little  squirrel  with  one  eye  partly  open.  With  the 
two  larger  squirrels  it  was  the  left  eye,  with  the 
smaller  one  it  was  the  right  eye.  The  smallest  squir- 
rel was  of  a  much  lighter  gray  than  the  other  two, 
and  had  no  rusty  hairs  in  its  coat. 

On  the  morning  following  that  of  the  above  record 
we  looked  with  expectancy  for  wide-open  eyes,  but 
only  the  little  gray  had  an  eye  open,  its  right  eye, 


52      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

as  before,  but  this  was  hardly  as  wide  open  as  on  the 
previous  day.  Fanny,  about  this  time,  began  to  lie 
flat  on  her  back  to  suckle  her  little  ones.  For 
several  days  previous  to  this  she  had  been  burying 
her  food  in  the  nest.  On  this  day  she  took  a 
piece  of  cotton  from  her  bed,  and  with  her  mouth 
and  front  paws  gave  it  a  good  shaking,  then  put 
it  back  into  the  nest. 

On  the  day  following  the  above  record,  one  of 
the  large  squirrels  opened  neither  eye  all  day. 
The  other  large  one  had  both  eyes  open,  not  wide, 
but  about  halfway.  The  little  one  had  its  right 
eye  open,  but  no  farther  than  on  the  previous 
day.  The  squirrel  with  both  eyes  open  drew  itself 
up  so  as  to  peep  over  the  top  of  the  box. 
Fanny,  seeing  it,  drew  it  back  into  the  nest. 
By  this  time  we  were  in  the  habit  of  handling 
the  little  ones  and  taking  them  out  of  the  cage. 
Neither  Fanny  nor  the  little  ones  objected. 

When  the  little  squirrels  were  six  weeks  old,  for 
the  first  time  all  three  had  both  eyes  open.  They 
did  not  move  about  much  on  this  great  day,  slept 
as  usual,  but  were  more  restless.  Fanny  now  began 
sunning  herself,  stretching  out  flat  on  the  bottom 
of  the  cage. 


THE    LIFE    OF    A    GRAY    SQUIRREL  53 

Two  days  later  than  the  above  record  the  little 
squirrels  took  up  cracked  nuts  in  their  paws  and 
nibbled  them.  The  smallest  squirrel  at  this  time 
was  the  most  active.  On  the  evening  of  this  day 
one  of  the  little  squirrels  kept  getting  out  of  the 
box.  Fanny  was  displeased.  Every  time  it  got  out 
she  would  run  after  it  and,  grasping  it  by  the  hind 
leg,  lift  it  into  the  box.  At  one  time  the  little  fel- 
low ran  about  on  the  floor  of  the  cage,  in  a  very 
animated  manner. 

Five  days  later  the  little  ones  had  begun  to  walk 
and  run  about  the  cage  a  great  deal,  and  on  this 
day,  for  the  first  time,  they  climbed  up  the  sides 
of  the  wire  cage.  When  walking  or  running  they 
still  seemed  unsteady  on  their  feet,  and  when  hold- 
ing up  a  nut  in  the  paws,  as  they  did  on  rare 
occasions,  their  hind  legs  wabbled.  On  this  day 
and  once  previously,  one  little  fellow  worked  at  its 
mother's  mouth  —  seemed  to  be  biting  her  teeth. 
We  examined  its  teeth  and  found  them  just  through. 
We  think  it  was  using  its  mother's  teeth  as  a  baby, 
when  teething,  uses  an  ivory  ring.  The  mother 
was  very  patient  and  seemed  to  regard  the  opera- 
tion as  perfectly  proper.  The  little  teeth  were  very 
tiny  and  very  white.  The  little  squirrels  had  sharp 


54      NATURE  STUDY   LESSONS   FOR  PKIMAKV    (.KADES 

nails.     We   could   hardly  get   them   off    our  cloth- 

iii;'.    when    they    liad    been    ninniiij',    over   us. 

One  day  after  the  above  record  all  three  little 
squirrels  lay  down  on  the  bottom  of  the  cage  to- 
gether to  sleep. 

When  eight  weeks  old  their  tails  were  beautiful 
and  they  curled  them  gracefully  over  their  backs. 

They    had   by  this   time   beeome   wry  nimble.      They 

would  take  away  Fanny's  nuts  when  she  was  nib- 
bling them.  Fanny  stored  away  in  the  box  large 
quantities  of  nuts,  never  putting  two  in  the  same 
spot.  She  covered  them  by  scratching  anything 
over  them  that  happened  to  be  handy,  even  though 
it  were  one  of  the  little  squirrels. 

Two  days  later  one  squirrel  would  lie  on  its 
back,  kick  up  its  legs,  and  grab  another  squirrel, 
when  a  skirmish  would  follow.  They  continued 
to  steal  the  nuts  from  Fanny's  mouth.  They  were 
now  beginning  to  eat  nuts,  kernels  of  corn,  and 
clover.  One  lay  down  and  gnawed  a  kernel  of 
corn  as  a  dog  gnaws  a  bone. 

When  nine  and  a  half  weeks  old  the  little  ones 
teased  Fanny  when  eating  so  much  that  she  hung 
by  her  toes  from  the  side  of  the  cage  near  the 
top,  to  crack  nuts.  The  tails  of  the  babies  were 


'mi'.  I.IH<:  OK   A   (;KAV   souiKivi-.i.  55 

now  longer  than  their  bodies.  'I'hc  little-  ones  were 
beeomins',  In-arty  caters,  their  lavoiilc  |<>od  hem;-, 
hi<koiy  nuts.  On  this  day  I  wore  a  suowh.ill. 
Fanny  came  to  the  side  of  the  ca<;c  and  nibbled 
at  the  snowball.  When  I  took  it  off  and  gave  it 
to  her,  she  ate  more  than  half  of  it, 
One  day  later  than  the  above  Fanny  and  her 

babies  (juairclcd.  She  was  tired  of  having  them 
boss  her  about,  and  refused  to  submit. 

When    ten   and    a    half    weeks  old    Fanny  still 

washed  her  babies,  lapping  them  with  her  tongue. 
She  still  suckled  them,  though  a  lew  limes  she 
had  resisted  their  demands  for  food.  They  now 

looked  to  be  almost  as  large  as  the  mother.  The 
smallest  one  was  a  downright  wicked  tease.  It 
made  a  practice  of  skipping  up  behind  one  of  the 
others  and  biting  it,  stealing  the  food  of  the  others, 

bitiujv   them   when   they    wished   to  eat,  and   the   like. 

Finally  we  had  to  take  the  little  hector  out  of  the 
cage  and  give  him  a  cage  to  himself. 

About  a  week  after  this  one  of  the  squirrels  which 
remained  in  the  cage  died,  We  know  no  cause  for 
its  death.  We  took  the  other  little  squirrel  from 
the  mother,  as  she  had  been  taking  its  choice  morsels 

of  lood  Irom   it.      We   kept   it  out.  only  three  days,  as 


56      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

it  grieved  greatly  for  its  mother.  The  evening  after 
we  put  it  back  it  had  a  hard  spasm.  Fearing  that 
the  room  was  too  warm  and  sunny,  we  sent  all 
to  the  basement  in  another  building.  Here  they 
were  given  much  freedom  and  throve  well.  This 
was  near  the  end  of  the  term.  The  children  had 
watched  closely  and  noted  with  greatest  interest 
all  the  changes  here  recorded,  and  they  loved  the 
little  squirrels  and  Fanny  very  much.  They  re- 
lated to  the  teacher  in  their  nature  study  class 
what  they  had  observed.  If  any  difference  of 
opinion  existed,  it  was  settled  by  closer  observation. 

VIII 
OUR   MOUSE,   JIM 

The  following  are  some  observations  made,  in  the 
schoolroom,  of  our  mouse,  Jim. 

Jim  was  not  a  handsome  mouse.  He  was  gray, 
with  the  under  parts  somewhat  lighter.  Our  jani- 
tor caught  him  for  us  in  a  trap  —  one  of  the  kind 
that  preserves  the  specimen  alive  and  unmuti- 
lated.  Before  he  arrived  we  had  made  ready  for 
him  a  cage.  It  was  made  of  woven  wire,  and  was 
about  a  foot  square.  It  had  a  wooden  bottom, 


OUR   MOUSE,   JIM  57 

which  the  mouse  never  saw  fit  to  gnaw  through. 
There  was  a  wire  handle  at  the  top,  and  a  wire 
door  in  one  side,  near  the  bottom.  This  door  was 
of  such  a  size  that  the  top  of  a  glass  fruit  jar  ex- 
actly fitted  into  it.  The  cost  of  the  cage  was  fifty 
cents.  A  tinner  made  it  for  us. 

As  often  as  the  cage  needed  cleaning,  Jim  was 
tempted  by  some  dainty  to  go  into  a  two-quart 
jar  whose  mouth  had  been  put  into  the  door  of 
the  cage.  Once  in  there,  the  top  of  the  jar  was 
put  on  lightly,  and  the  cage  was  cleaned.  Jim, 
almost  without  fail,  gave  himself  a  thorough  clean- 
ing while  in  this  jar.  Standing  on  his  hind  paws, 
he  lapped  his  little  pink  hands,  and  then  proceeded, 
much  as  a  cat  does,  to  clean  very  carefully  all 
parts  of  his  body,  his  hands  returning  to  his  mouth 
frequently. 

In  the  meantime  the  cage  had  been  washed  out 
thoroughly  and  dried,  and  a  double  piece  of  paper 
a  foot  wide  but  several  inches  longer  was  put  into 
the  cage,  so  that  one  side  folded  over,  forming  a 
roof  for  a  retiring  room.  Jim  had  asked  for  this 
room  in  this  way :  At  first  we  cut  the  paper  a 
foot  square.  Jim  would  invariably  push  up  one 
side  of  the  paper  and  go  under  it  when  he  wished 


58      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

to  sleep  or  meditate.  By  lengthening  the  paper 
we  saved  him  this  trouble.  He  had  not  ceased  to 
be  wary,  although  he  knew  us  well,  for  he  always 
cut  out  a  little  window  in  this  private  office  of  his, 
and  slept  with  his  head  in  such  a  position  that  he 
could  look  out  of  this  window. 

How  happy  he  was  to  get  back  into  his  clean 
cage !  He  would  run  up  one  side,  throw  his  head 
far  back,  and  turn  a  somersault,  landing  on  his  feet 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cage.  This  was  his  favorite 
pastime.  His  movements  were  so  rapid,  when  he 
was  fairly  started,  that  it  was  impossible  to  tell  how 
he  moved. 

The  children  at  school  were  glad  to  furnish  food 
to  the  little  fellow  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing  him 
eat.  His  mouth  was  hid  from  sight.  If  a  grain 
of  field  corn  were  given  him,  he  picked  it  up  in  his 
front  paws,  standing  on  his  hind  legs,  exactly  as 
does  a  squirrel  when  eating  a  nut.  He  first  pulled 
off  with  his  teeth  the  thin  husk  on  the  outside  of 
the  grain,  dropped  it,  and,  beginning  at  the  crown,  ate 
downward  toward  the  heart  of  the  kernel  for  some 
distance ;  then  he  turned  it  and  ate  toward  the  heart 
from  the  opposite  side,  until  one  part  dropped.  The 
remaining  part  he  ate  from  the  outside  inward,  nib- 


OUR    MOUSE,    JIM  59 

bling  little  bites,  or  sometimes  taking  larger  bites  and 
chewing  them.  When  the  one  part  was  eaten,  he 
scurried  around,  hunting  the  other  portion,  which 
he  ate  in  the  same  way.  If  he  had  an  abundance 
of  corn,  he  would  eat  the  crown  out  of  several 
kernels,  instead  of  eating  an  entire  one.  When 
a  kernel  of  rice  popcorn  was  given  him,  instead 
of  beginning  at  the  crown  to  nibble  (the  crown  is 
very  hard),  he  began  at  the  softer  base. 

We  expected  him  to  go  into  raptures  over  his 
first  bit  of  cheese,  this  being  considered  a  mouse's 
great  luxury,  but  he  disappointed  us.  He  nibbled 
a  little  from  it  occasionally,  but  in  a  half-hearted 
way. 

He  was  very  fond  of  cake.  One  could  almost 
hear  him  smack  his  jaws  in  satisfaction  when  he 
got  hold  of  a  piece.  He  would  hold  it  up  in  his 
paws,  if  not  too  heavy,  and  eat  it  in  much  the  same 
way  that  he  ate  the  corn.  If  the  piece  were  too 
large,  he  put  his  head  down  to  it,  using  his  paws 
in  turning  it.  His  hands  seemed  as  necessary  to 
him,  for  feeding  himself,  as  do  ours.  We  never 
saw  him  eat  anything  without  bringing  them  into 
use  to  hold  the  food  in  a  good  position  for  nibbling. 

We  watered  Jim  in  a  little  glass  salt  cellar.     He 


6O      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

cared  for  water  at  least  once  a  day.  Sometimes 
he  would  drink  oftener.  When  the  water  was  put 
into  the  cage  he  would  run  to  it,  put  his  two  front 
feet  on  the  side  of  the  dish,  and  lap  up  rapidly 
from  the  center.  Occasionally  we  gave  him  milk. 
This  he  would  sometimes  lap  from  the  center,  at 
other  times  from  the  edge  of  the  dish  only. 

His  hand  was  very  delicate.  There  were  four 
slender  fingers  on  a  level,  and  a  thumb  higher  up, 
as  in  our  own  hand.  The  foot  had  but  four  toes, 
the  use  of  the  toes  being  less  varied  than  that  of 
the  fingers. 

While  we  do  not  doubt  that  his  prominent  nose 
served  a  good  purpose,  we  were  not  able  to  demon- 
strate to  our  satisfaction  that  he  has  the  keen  scent 
accorded  him  by  some. 

His  little  black  eyes  seemed  to  see  in  every  direc- 
tion at  once,  and  his  thin  papery  ears  caught  the 
slightest  sound.  His  whole  attitude  was  one  of 
alertness.  A  cat  that  could  surprise  one  such  little 
fellow  must  be  very  quick-witted  as  well  as  quick- 
motioned. 

So  far  as  we  could  discover,  his  tail  was  a  useless 
appendage  —  not  even  ornamental,  we  should  say ; 
but  Jim  seemed  very  proud  of  it.  He  washed  it 


THE    RABBIT  6 1 

with  great  care,  and  laid  it  out  in  a  graceful  curve, 
when  resting.  We  think  he  would  look  quite  in- 
artistic, however,  without  this  three-inch  measure, 
and  were  it  covered  with  hair,  forming  a  beautiful 
brush  like  that  of  the  squirrel,  probably  not  a  mouse 
would  be  making  history  to-day. 

IX 
THE   RABBIT  (COMMON   HARE) 

The  purpose  of  the  first  recitation  is  to  find  out 
what  the  children  know  about  the  subject. 

Did  you  see  some  little  tracks  in  the  snow  this 
morning  as  you  came  to  school?  What  made  them? 
(Dogs  or  cats.)  Did  you  see  any  others  smaller 
than  these?  What  had  made  them?  (Rabbits.) 
Show  me  on  the  board  just  how  these  tracks  looked. 
If  the  children  cannot  do  this,  ask  them  to  notice 
closely  and  draw  a  picture  of  them  on  paper  and 
bring  to  class  next  day.  When  do  you  think  the 
rabbit  made  them?  (At  night,  perhaps.)  Why 
was  he  running  about  at  night?  (To  get  food.) 
Why  not  get  his  food  in  the  daytime?  (He  is 
afraid  some  enemy  will  see  him  and  catch  him.) 
Then  the  rabbit  has  enemies  ?  Name  some  of  the 


62      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

enemies  that  you  know.  (Men,  dogs,  cats,  snakes, 
hawks,  owls.)  To-morrow  we  shall  see  how  these 
tracks  of  Bunny's  help  some  of  his  enemies  to 
catch  him. 

At  the  next  recitation  the  teacher  brings  in  a 
tame  rabbit,  introducing  it  as  gray  Bunny's  cousin, 
which  hops  just  as  gray  Bunny  does,  and  has  ears 
and  eyes  much  like  his,  except  the  color  of  the 
eyes.  The  teacher  takes  the  pictures  called  for  the 
day  before.  Explanations  are  made  of  how  the  rab- 
bit makes  three  tracks  instead  of  four.  The  two 
front  feet  strike  together,  and  the  two  hind  feet  come 
up  on  the  sides,  striking  a  little  in  front  of  the  two 
front  feet.  Which  feet  move  first,  the  fore  or  the 
hind  feet?  Which  pair  of  legs  help  him  the  more 
in  hopping  ?  (Hind  legs.)  How  are  they  fitted  for 
helping  him  so  much  ?  (They  are  long  and  strong.) 
What  about  the  front  legs?  (They  are  shorter  and 
weaker.)  How  is  it  that  the  rabbit  can  get  about 
so  quietly?  I  will  hold  him  so  that  you  may  see 
if  you  can  find  out.  (The  soles  of  his  feet  are  cush- 
ioned and  covered  with  hair.)  Why  does  Bunny 
need  to  get  about  so  quietly  ?  (So  his  enemies 
will  not  hear  him.)  But  we  have  found  out  that 
when  he  hops  he  leaves  what?  (Tracks.)  And  we 


THE   RABBIT  63 

said  yesterday  that  some  of  his  enemies  were  helped 
by  these  tracks  to  catch  him.  What  enemies? 
(Men.  They  see  the  tracks  and  follow  them.) 
What  other  enemies  are  guided  by  the  tracks? 
(Dogs.)  How  do  the  tracks  help  them?  Did  you 
ever  see  dogs  hunting  rabbits?  What  did  they 
do?  (Kept  noses  down  to  ground.)  What  doing? 
(Smelling  the  tracks  —  "getting  the  scent")  Do 
they  need  to  see  the  tracks?  (No.)  What  will 
Bunny  do  to  get  away  from  the  dogs?  How  will 
he  know  that  they  are  coming?  (See  them.)  Look 
at  his  eyes;  where  are  they?  (On  sides  of  head.) 
How  does  that  help  ?  (He  can  see  all  about  with- 
out turning  his  head.)  What  does  he  turn?  (His 
eyes,  so  that  when  he  is  running  he  can  see  the 
dogs  back  of  him.)  What  else  tells  Bunny  that 
the  dogs  are  coming?  (His  ears.)  Are  they  good 
ears?  Give  a  low  bark  in  the  next  room,  Earl. 
What  did  Bunny  do?  (Stuck  up  his  ears.)  Why? 
(To  catch  the  sounds.)  What  else  do  you  notice 
about  his  ears?  (He  can  turn  them  in  any  direc- 
tion.) How  will  this  help  him?  (Even  if  he  can- 
not see  the  dog,  he  can  tell  from  what  direction  he 
is  coming  without  turning  his  head.) 

Now  that  Bunny  sees  or  hears  the  dog,  what  will 


64      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

he  do?  (Run.)  Can  he  go  fast?  How  do  you 
know?  (Have  seen  him.)  (Those  long,  strong  hind 
legs  help  him.)  How  does  he  hold  his  ears  when 
running?  (Down  and  back.)  Why?  (  (a)  So  that 
they  will  be  out  of  his  way  when  running  under 
fences  and  brush.  (b)  So  that  the  air  pressing 
against  them  will  not  hinder  him.  (c)  So  that  he  can 
hear  his  pursuers.) 

In  what  other  way  than  by  running  can  he  get 
away  from  the  dogs?  (  (a)  He  may  glide  into  a  hole 
or  hollow  log.  (b)  Turn  suddenly  when  the  dog  gets 
up  to  him.  The  dog  cannot  turn  so  quickly,  and 
not  expecting  this  change  in  affairs,  loses  some  time, 
the  rabbit  improving  it  in  getting  away,  (c)  Crouch 
down  on  a  log  or  in  the  bushes.  His  color  being 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  log  or  bushes,  the  dog 
will  sometimes  give  up  the  search  after  sniffing 
about  for  a  time  within  a  short  distance  of  him.) 

If  Bunny  escapes  from  the  dogs,  he  goes  where  ? 
(To  his  home.)  Where  is  it?  (Near  some  log, 
under  bushes,  at  foot  of  tree,  or  in  the  weeds.) 
What  kind  of  a  house?  (A  hollow  in  the  grass  or 
weeds.)  Is  there  no  roof  to  his  house?  (No.) 
Sometimes  there  is.  What  kind  of  a  roof  do  you 
think  it  is?  There  is  sometimes  such  a  roof  on  your 


THE    RABBIT  65 

house,  over  the  other  roof.  (Snow.)  How  did  Bunny 
get  such  a  roof?  (Remained  in  his  house,  or  form, 
during  a  snowstorm  and  let  the  snow  cover  him.) 
Does  snow  make  a  good  roof  for  him?  Why  do  you 
have  warm  covers  on  your  bed  at  night?  (To  keep 
us  warm.)  How  does  it  keep  you  warm  ?  Is  not 
the  cold  air  all  about  your  bed  ?  (The  covers  keep 
it  out  and  keep  the  warmth  in.)  What  does  the 
snow  do  for  Bunny?  (Keeps  cold  air  out  and  the 
warmth  within.)  How  can  he  breathe  in  there? 
Did  you  ever  breathe  on  the  ice  covering  the  win- 
dow, some  cold  morning?  What  did  your  warm 
breath  do  to  the  ice?  (Melted  it.)  What  does 
Bunny's  breath  do  to  the  snow?  (Bunny's  breath 
melts  the  snow  a  little,  so  he  can  get  fresh  air.) 
How  long  will  Bunny  stay  in  his  snow-covered 
home?  (Till  he  gets  hungry.) 

Why  does  the  hunter  want  to  kill  Bunny?  (  (a)  For 
food,  (b)  For  his  fur.  (c)  For  fun.  [What  do  you 
think  of  this  ?]  (d)  Because  he  eats  the  vegetables  in 
summer,  (e)  He  girdles  the  farmer's  trees  in  winter.) 

Does  it  not  seem  that  with  so  many  enemies  there 
would  be  no  rabbits  left?  This  would  be  true  were 
there  not  so  many  young  rabbits  every  year,  enough 
to  take  the  place  of  those  killed. 


66      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

We  have  learned  something  about  Bunny's  ene- 
mies. Why  do  gardeners  and  fruit  raisers  often  kill 
rabbits?  (Because  they  eat  their  vegetables  in  the 
summer  and  gnaw  their  fruit  trees  in  the  winter.) 
Why  do  they  gnaw  the  fruit  trees  in  the  winter? 
(Food  is  scarce  then  and  they  like  the  bark  of  trees.) 
Do  they  gnaw  young  or  old  trees  ?  (Young  trees, 
because  they  have  tender  bark.)  What  kind  of  teeth 
must  the  rabbit  have  to  gnaw  this  bark?  (Sharp 
teeth.)  Must  all  the  teeth  be  sharp?  (The  front 
ones,  at  least,  must  be  so.)  What  else  should  be  true 
of  the  front  teeth  that  they  may  nibble  off  the  bark? 
(They  should  be  long.)  Why?  (So  his  gums  will  not 
be  injured  by  the  wood  of  the  tree.)  Something  else 
must  be  true  of  his  teeth,  also.  Think  of  the  kind  of 
food  he  is  getting  and  how  he  is  getting  it.  (They 
must  be  strong.)  Let  us  open  Bunny's  mouth  —  for 
tame  Bunny  has  teeth  like  those  of  wild  Bunny  — 
and  see  if  his  front  teeth  are  sharp,  long,  and  strong. 
What  do  you  see?  (Two  long,  sharp,  strong  teeth 
in  each  jaw.)  Here  are  some  of  Bunny's  teeth 
(taken  from  a  skull)  and  here  are  some  knives. 
Let  us  see  if  the  front  and  back  part  of  the  teeth 
are  equally  hard.  (The  front  is  the  harder.)  As  he 
nibbles  the  hard  bark,  what  will  become  of  the  softer 


THE   RABBIT  6/ 

back  of  the  tooth?  (It  will  wear  off  faster  than  the 
front  part.)  What  will  that  do  for  the  tooth? 
(Sharpen  it.)  Will  not  the  teeth  finally  be  worn 
down  to  the  gum  ?  (They  would,  did  they  not  keep 
growing  out  from  the  gum.)  What  would  happen  to 
Bunny  did  he  not  wear  off  his  teeth?  (They  would 
keep  on  growing  and  become  great  tusks.)  (The 
teacher  might  cite  examples  of  deformity  caused  by 
one  tooth  being  broken  off.)  Do  you  blame  Bunny, 
then,  for  nibbling  something  hard  ? 

Look  at  Bunny's  mouth.  Do  you  see  anything 
about  it  that  helps  him  in  nibbling  the  trees?  (The 
upper  lip  is  cleft.)  How  does  this  help?  (The 
lip  is  out  of  his  way  when  nibbling,  and  so  does  not 
get  hurt  by  rubbing  against  the  tree.) 

After  Bunny  nibbles  off  the  food,  what  does  he  do 
with  it  before  swallowing  it?  (Chews  it.)  With  his 
sharp  front  teeth  ?  (No,  with  chewing  teeth  such  as 
we  have.)  Let  us  see  if  Bunny  has  such  teeth. 
(He  has.) 

Now  Bunny  has  finished  his  breakfast  or  supper 
off  the  bark  of  the  tree.  Has  he  harmed  the  tree 
much  ?  (Killed  it  if  he  has  gnawed  all  the  way 
around.)  How  is  that?  (The  roads  through  which 
the  sap  passes  from  roots  to  leaves,  and  from  the 


68      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

leaves  back  to  the  roots,  are  spoiled.)  [This  presup- 
poses a  study  of  the  tree.]  And  so  the  fruit  grower 
would  like  Bunny  to  stay  away  from  his  orchard, 
and  when  the  weather  is  warm  and  there  is  plenty 
of  clover  and  vegetables,  Bunny  is  willing  to  do  so. 

Has  he  ever  been  to  your  garden?  Did  you  see 
him?  How  did  you  know,  then,  that  he  had  been 
there?  The  parsley,  lettuce,  beets,  etc.,  told  the 
story.  Does  he  like  flowers,  too?  Yes,  and  he  has 
good  taste  —  a  great  liking  for  carnations  and  other 
pinks.  Now  this  tame  rabbit  eats  as  does  the  wild 
one,  so  we  will  ask  him  to  show  how  the  gray  rabbit 
eats,  since  we  cannot  catch  gray  Bunny  eating.  We 
will  feed  him  parsley  and  carrot  and  apple.  (Chil- 
dren try  many  different  kinds  of  food.) 

What  have  we  found  Bunny  using  his  front  teeth 
for?  (Gnawing.)  Now  watch  him.  What  does  he 
do  with  the  parsley?  (Bites  off  a  mouthful,  then 
chews  it.)  And  with  the  tender  leaves  of  the  beet? 
(The  same.)  And  what  does  he  do  with  the  apple? 
(Gnaws  off  a  little  at  a  time.)  Then  he  uses  his  front 
teeth  for  what  ?  His  back  teeth  for  what  ? 

Tell  me  some  interesting  things  you  have  learned 
about  the  gray  rabbit.  What  else  would  you  like  to 
know  ?  A  study  of  the  young  will  follow  later. 


THE   CHICKEN  69 


THE  CHICKEN 

In  Grimm's  story  of  "  The  Street  Musicians,"  when 
they  had  stopped  in  the  wood  for  the  night,  where 
did  the  rooster  settle  down?  (In  the  top  of  a  high 
tree.)  How  did  he  get  up  so  high?  (He  flew  to 
one  of  the  lower  branches,  from  there  to  a  higher 
one,  and  so  on.)  Why  do  you  think  so?  (I  have 
seen  chickens  fly  up  into  trees,  and  that  is  the  way 
they  always  did.)  Why  doesn't  a  chicken  fly 
directly  to  the  top  of  the  tree  from  the  ground  ? 
(Its  wings  are  not  strong  enough  to  carry  its  heavy 
body  so  far  without  stopping  to  rest.)  Does  a  chicken 
have  much  flying  to  do?  When  does  it  fly?  (To  and 
from  its  roost.)  Where  does  it  roost?  Where  did 
the  rooster  roost  after  his  good  supper  in  the  rob- 
bers' hut  ?  Have  you  seen  chickens  fly  at  other  times 
than  those  just  spoken  of?  (Sometimes,  when  they 
cannot  get  through  a  crack,  they  will  fly  over  a 
fence.)  How  ?  [Children  give  their  observations.] 
They  usually  fly  to  the  top  of  the  fence,  light  there, 
then  fly  down  on  the  other  side.  Why  do  they  make 
so  much  noise  about  it  ?  (It  is  such  hard  work.) 


70      NATURE   STUDY    LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

Do  you  know  what  is  sometimes  done  to  chickens 
to  keep  them  from  flying  over  fences?  (Their  wing 
feathers  on  one  wing  are  clipped.)  How  does  this 
hinder  them  from  flying  so  high?  (They  cannot 
balance  themselves.)  How  does  a  chicken  fly?  (By 
beating  its  wings  against  the  air.)  You  can  raise  your 
heavy  body  a  little  way  from  the  ground  by  pushing 
down  on  two  posts  driven  into  the  ground.  A  bird 
has  no  posts  to  push  against,  but  it  can  press  against 
the  air.  That  is  always  handy,  too.  [By  the  use 
of  a  light  fan,  fanning  downward  and  outward  rapidly, 
the  children  become  conscious  that  there  is  a  resist- 
ance of  the  air.] 

[We  do  not  wish  to  go  deeply  into  this  subject. 
Perhaps  it  would  be  wise  not  to  touch  upon  it  at 
all,  but  usually  the  interested  children  bring  up 
the  question  and  force  some  explanation  of  how 
birds  jly.~\  The  motions  of  the  wings  made  by  the 
chicken  in  flying  —  are  they  slow  or  rapid?  In 
raising  its  wing  why  does  not  the  air  above  push 
the  bird  back?  The  chicken  does  not  raise  its 
wing  straight  up,  it  cuts  through  the  air  with  the 
front  of  the  wing,  —  so  (showing  with  the  fan). 

You  have  seen  the  wing  of  a  chicken  on  the 
dinner  table  and  it  looks  much  smaller  than  when 


THE    CHICKEN  7 1 

on  the  chicken.  Why  is  that?  (It  has  the  feathers 
off.)  [If  possible,  the  teacher  should  have  a  gentle 
hen  in  the  class,  also  the  wing  of  a  dressed  chicken, 
and  a  wing  with  feathers  upon  it.  Compare  in 
size  the  two  wings.]  Is  this  hen  going  to  fly  now  ? 
How  do  you  know  she  is  not?  (Her  wings  are 
not  spread.)  The  teacher  extends  and  contracts 
gently  the  wing  of  the  hen  a  few  times.  Does  that 
make  you  think  of  anything  you  sometimes  see?  (A 
fan.)  When  does  the  chicken  close  its  fans?  When 
it  does  not  wish  to  use  them  in  flying?  Why  does 
it  not  keep  them  stretched  out  all  of  the  time? 
(They  would  be  in  its  way.)  When?  Can  you  show 
with  your  arms  how  the  hen  closes  her  wings,  or 
arms?  What  does  she  do  when  she  wishes  to  fly? 
[Children  relate  their  observations.]  Show  how, 
starting  with  your  arms  in  the  position  of  the  closed 
wings.  This  will  require  close  observation.  [Call 
attention  to  the  position  of  the  thumb  or  forefinger 
in  the  dressed  wing.]  Do  your  arms  now  look  like 
the  chicken's  spread  wing  ?  (No,  the  skin  that  holds 
the  two  parts  of  the  hen's  arm,  or  wing,  together 
is  wanting  in  our  arm.)  What,  then,  can  you  do 
with  your  arms  that  the  hen  cannot  do  with  hers? 
(Stretch  them  out  straight.)  Picture  on  the  board 


72       NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

John's  arm  stretched  out.  Beside  it  picture  the 
dressed  wing  stretched  out.  What  is  this  wing 
mostly  made  of?  (Skin  and  bones.)  Can  you  think 
of  any  reason  why  it  may  be  well  that  there  is  no 
more  meat  on  it  ?  (The  meat  would  make  the  wing 
heavy.  She  would  tire  holding  out  a  heavy  wing  in 
flying.) 

But  the  hen  has  besides  the  skin,  bones,  and  mus- 
cles, what?  (Feathers.)  Do  these  help  or  hinder 
her  flying?  (She  spreads  out  these  feathers  and 
strikes  against  much  more  air  than  the  naked  wing 
could  press  against.  She  could  not  rise  at  all  with 
the  naked  wing.)  Let  us  look  at  one  of  these  large 
wing  feathers  and  see  if  we  think  it  is  the  kind  the 
chicken  needs  for  flying..  Lift  it.  (It  is  so  light 
that  I  cannot  feel  its  weight.)  Does  the  chicken 
need  light  feathers?  Why?  Is  this  feather  straight? 
(No,  it  curves  downward  a  little.)  Is  this  well?  The 
feathers  hold  the  air  under  better  than  they  would  if 
they  were  flat.  [They  will  notice  the  difference  in 
pressure  of  a  concave  and  a  flat  fan.]  How  many 
of  these  long  feathers  ?  Does  it  need  so  many  ? 
Pull  a  feather  from  this  wing  which  I  have  here. 
[The  feather  comes  only  after  hard  pulling.]  Is 
it  well  that  the  feathers  are  fastened  so  tightly? 


THE   CHICKEN  73 

Why  ?  We  will  look  closely  at  these  feathers. 
This  middle  part  is  called  the  shaft.  Each  side 
is  called  a  web.  Is  the  web  of  the  same  width  on 
both  sides  ?  (Notice  how  the  feathers  are  arranged 
on  the  wing.)  The  narrow  web  of  one  covers  the 
wide  web  of  its  neighbor.  Only  one  side  needs  to 
be  long,  and  the  chicken  wishes  to  have  as  light 
wings  as  possible,  as  we  have  said  before.  Can 
you  think  of  any  reason  for  having  the  narrow  web 
over  the  wide  one  ?  Examine  the  wing.  Would  it  do 
just  as  well  to  have  the  wide  web  over  the  narrow? 

Notice  one  little  part  of  the  web.  That  is  called 
a  barb.  Separate  carefully  these  barbs.  (They 
cling  closely  together.)  After  you  have  separated 
them,  smooth  them  down.  What  do  you  notice? 
(They  cling  as  before.)  Hold  the  feather  up  to  the 
light  as  you  slowly  separate  these  barbs.  What  do 
you  see  ?  (Each  barb  has  little  teeth  on  both  sides. 
These  teeth  fit  into  those  of  the  barbs  next  to  them.) 
Is  that  well  for  the  chicken  ?  (Yes,  if  the  feathers 
let  the  air  through,  it  would  leave  nothing  to  press 
against  and  the  chicken  could  not  rise.)  What  do 
you  notice  above  these  long  feathers  ?  Of  what  use 
are  these  feathers?  Above  these,  what?  Can  you 
think  how  else  the  chicken  is  helped  by  having 


74      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

feathers  that  shut  out  the  air?  (Its  body  is  kept 
warmer.)  How  are  the  little  chickens  helped  by 
such  feathers?  (The  wings  keep  the  cold  air  from 
them  at  night,  as  the  hen  covers  the  chickens  with 
her  wings.) 

Are  all  the  barbs  on  the  hen's  feathers  hooked 
together?  [Examine  one  of  the  small  feathers.] 
On  which  part  of  the  feather  are  the  barbs  hooked 
together?  (On  the  part  that  is  on  the  outside  of  the 
chicken.  The  part  that  is  covered  is  softer  —  more 
like  down.)  How  are  the  small  feathers  arranged 
on  the  hen?  (They  all  point  backward  from  the  head, 
and  grow  one  over  another  like  the  shingles  on  a 
house,  only  closer  together.  The  barbed  part  is  on 
the  outside.)  Is  this  well  for  the  hen?  Why?  (It 
makes  a  very  thick  cover,  keeping  out  the  cold,  and 
also  sheds  the  rain  quite  well,  the  rain  running  off 
the  end  of  one  feather  on  to  the  next,  and  so  on  until 
it  drops  to  the  ground.)  Have  all  the  feathers  some 
barbs  ?  Where  do  you  find  feathers  without  barbs  ? 
Notice  how  a  hen  stands  in  the  rain.  (With  her  tail 
drooping,  as  if  to  let  the  rain  have  a  chance  to  run  off 
by  the  way  of  her  tail  feathers.)  In  what  other  way 
is  the  chicken  helped  to  keep  dry  in  rainy  weather  ? 
Have  you  noticed  what  a  hen  sometimes  does  during 


THE    CHICKEN  75 

a  rain  ?  (She  oils  her  feathers  so  that  they  will  shed 
the  rain.)  Will  oil  shed  water  ?  How  do  you  know  ? 
[Have  oiled  paper  in  the  class.  Pour  water  on  it  and 
see  what  happens.]  Where  does  the  chicken  get  the 
oil  ?  (From  a  little  sac  just  above  the  tail.)  [Show 
on  dressed  chicken.]  Where  does  the  oil  come  out? 
How  does  the  hen  get  it  out?  (With  her  bill.)  How 
can  she  reach  away  around  there  with  her  bill  ?  (Her 
neck  is  long  and  limber,  and  she  can  twist  it  around 
easily.)  How  does  she  get  the  oil  out?  (Presses 
down  on  the  sac  with  her  bill,  and  it  comes  out  as 
does  the  juice  when  you  press  on  an  orange  in  which 
you  have  made  a  hole.)  How  does  she  carry  the  oil 
to  the  feathers?  With  her  bill?  How  put  it  on  the 
feathers?  (She  passes  each  feather  which  she  wishes 
to  oil  between  her  two  mandibles.)  Her  bill  is  the 
finest  comb  the  hen  has. 

But  her  hair  combing  is  no  queerer  than  her  bath. 
Did  you  ever  see  a  hen  bathing?  No  ?  Did  you  ever 
see  a  hen  in  an  ash  pile  or  in  a  pile  of  dust  fluttering 
about?  Just  what  did  she  do?  [Children  find  out 
if  they  cannot  tell.]  This  is  her  bath.  Does  she 
seem  to  enjoy  it?  What  does  she  do  when  she  is 
through  her  dust  bath?  Change  her  clothes?  No, 
but  she  shakes  out  the  dust  and  preens  her  feathers. 


76      NATURE   STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

(Smooths  her  old  dress.)  How?  Does  the  hen 
never  change  her  dress?  Have  you  not  seen  many 
feathers  lying  about  the  henhouse?  Did  some- 
thing pull  them  out?  Do  they  usually  come  out 
easily?  How  does  this  happen,  then?  (Little  by 
little  she  is  changing  her  dress.  An  old  feather 
falls  out  and  a  new  one  grows  in  to  take  its  place. 
Sometimes  a  hen  loses  the  whole  of  her  tail  at  one 
time.)  When  does  this  changing  of  dress  happen? 
(Late  in  the  summer.)  Is  this  a  good  time?  Why? 
How  do  the  little  new  feathers  look  when  they  first 
come  in?  What  do  we  call  them?  (Pinfeathers.) 
Examine  these  carefully  if  they  can  be  found  when 
this  is  studied.  Why  does  the  hen  need  to  change 
her  dress  at  all?  (The  feathers  wear  out  and 
become  much  mussed.)  Is  there  any  order  in 
shedding  her  coat?  [When  one  wing  feather 
comes  out,  its  mate  on  the  opposite  side  is  said  to 
fall  out  also.  Watch  and  see  if  this  is  so.]  Are 
the  dresses  of  the  little  chickens  like  their  mother's? 
(No,  the  chickens  are  covered  with  down.)  How 
is  the  down  different  from  feathers?  (Down  has 
no  shaft  and  web.)  Before  going  farther  the 
children  tell  what  they  have  learned  about  chickens 
flying,  about  their  wings,  and  about  their  feathers. 


THE    CHICKEN  77 

Have  any  of  the  other  animals  that  we  have 
studied  feather  coats?  What  kind  of  coats  did 
they  have?  (The  shepherd  dog,  cow,  cat,  and 
horse  have  hair  coats,  the  sheep  a  wool  coat.) 

Where  did  we  find  the  rooster  in  our  story 
roosting  at  first?  Where  later?  Where  do  the 
chickens  that  you  know  roost?  Why  should  they 
leave  the  ground?  (Sometimes  the  ground  is  cold 
and  damp.  When  on  a  high  roost  the  chickens  are 
not  so  apt  to  be  disturbed  or  killed  by  rats,  skunks, 
dogs,  etc.)  How  do  they  hold  on  to  the  roost?  [If 
no  one  in  the  class  can  tell,  the  children  may  be 
given  time  to  find  out  for  themselves  by  watching 
the  chickens  at  home.]  (Its  three  front  toes  curve 
around  the  roost  in  front  —  this  way  —  (showing 
with  the  fingers)  while  its  hind  toe  reaches  around 
behind  and  steadies  it.)  But  when  the  hen  is 
asleep  will  she  not  stop  holding  on  and  fall  off? 
Notice  a  hen  as  she  raises  her  foot  in  walking 
slowly.  How  do  the  toes  look  ?  They  curl  up  very 
much  as  if  holding  to  a  perch.  When  do  her  toes 
spread  out?  (Only  when  her  feet  come  down  on 
the  flat  ground.  At  other  times  her  feet  are  in  a 
position  to  hold  on  to  a  perch.  And  the  weight  of 
her  body  only  tightens  her  hold.)  When  the  hens 


78   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

are  on  the  perch  do  they  stand  up  all  the  time  or 
do  they  sit?  Find  out.  Do  they  close  their  eyes? 
At  what  time  of  day  do  chickens  go  to  their 
high  beds?  (About  as  soon  as  the  sun  goes  down.) 
Do  we  hear  from  them  at  all  during  the  night? 
(The  old  rooster  crows  occasionally.)  How  early 
in  the  morning  do  chickens  get  up?  (In  the  sum- 
mer time,  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  be  light.  In  the 
winter,  they,  like  ourselves,  hate  to  get  up  into  the 
cold,  so  they  stay  on  their  beds  sometimes  until 
after  sunrise.)  Can  you  think  of  any  other  reason 
why  they  do  not  get  up  (or  get  down,  rather) 
earlier  in  the  winter?  They  have  not  so  much  work 
to  do.  There  are  no  bugs  or  worms  or  vege- 
tables to  which  they  may  help  themselves.  What 
do  they  eat  in  the  winter  time?  Where  do  they 
get  it?  Did  you  ever  notice  how  the  hen  eats  the 
Corn?  [The  teacher  can  feed  the  one  she  has  at 
school]  What  did  she  do?  (Picked  up  the 
kernels  very  fast  with  her  bill.)  What  kind  of  a 
bill  has  she?  (It  is  hard.)  Is  that  well?  Why? 
(It  is  strong.)  Why  does  she  'need  a  strong  bill? 
(It  is  pointed.)  Why  is  this  a  good  thing?  The 
upper  mandible  is  curved.  Is  it  better  so?  Why? 
Notice  how  the  forefinger  is  curved  in  picking  up 


THE    CHICKEN  79 

a  pin  from  the  floor.  Notice  the  shape  of  the 
lower  mandible.  What  do  you  think  of  that?  The 
bill  has  sharp  edges.  Is  this  well?  (Yes,  the 
chicken  can  cut  off  pieces  of  leaves,  grass,  etc., 
very  easily  with  such  sharp  knives.  She  can  cut 
them  off  as  fast  as  she  can  swallow  them.)  What 
other  animals  did  we  find  swallowing  food  very 
rapidly?  (Cow  and  sheep.)  But  was  this  the  last 
we  heard  of  this  poorly  chewed  food?  (No,  the  cows 
and  sheep  re-chew  their  grass,  hay,  etc.,  as  a  cud.) 
Have  you  ever  seen  chickens  chewing  a  cud?  (They 
do  not.) 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  why  a  chicken  does 
not  chew  its  food.  With  what  do  we  chew  our 
food?  (Teeth.)  What  kind  of  teeth  has  the 
chicken?  Very  carefully  open  the  hen's  mouth 
and  the  children  will  see  that  she  has  no  teeth. 
Then  why  does  the  chicken  not  chew  its  food? 
What  becomes  of  the  corn  that  it  takes  into  its 
mouth?  (It  swallows  it.)  How  many  have  ever 
watched  the  dressing  of  a  chicken?  Did  you  see  its 
crop?  Feel  right  here  on  our  hen.  That  is  its  crop 
that  you  feel.  The  food  that  it  swallows  goes  first 
into  that.  I  have  here  the  crop  of  a  chicken.  We 
will  open  it  and  see  what  we  find.  [There  is 


8O      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

nothing  repulsive  about  this  to  the  children,  as  all 
have  seen  dressed  chickens,  and  many  have  watched 
the  process  of  preparing  them  for  the  table.]  Now 
the  corn,  grass,  etc.,  stay  in  the  crop  until  they  are 
very  well  soaked,  then  they  pass  on  to  the  gizzard. 
Do  you  know  the  gizzard?  It  is  the  chicken's 
stomach.  Here  is  one.  Feel  of  it.  It  is  very  thick 
and  tough.  We  will  open  it  carefully.  [Peel  so  as 
to  leave  the  inner  sac  intact.]  What  kind  of  coat 
is  this  outer  coat?  (Strong  and  thick.)  We  will 
open  the  inner  coat.  What  do  you  see  ?  (The  food 
ground  fine,  and  some  pebbles.)  Take  hold  of  this 
inner  sac.  (It  is  tough  and  elastic.)  Where  is  the 
door  through  which  the  soaked  corn  comes  into  the 
stomach?  When  it  gets  inside  of  this  mill  it  is 
tossed  back  and  forth  with  the  stones  and  becomes 
very  fine,  as  you  see.  From  this  food  the  chicken's 
blood,  flesh,  fat,  and  feathers  are  made,  and  its 
muscles  and  bones  are  repaired. 

Name  other  things  that  the  chicken  eats  in  the 
winter.  And  in  the  summer  time  what?  Where  do 
they  find  the  bugs,  spiders,  etc.  ?  How  catch  them  ? 
[Children  watch  chickens  and  see.]  Where  do  the 
chickens  find  the  worms?  (In  the  ground.)  How 
get  them  out?  (With  their  sharp  toes.)  Did  you 


THE    CHICKEN  8 1 

ever  see  a  chicken  scratch  for  worms  or  seeds? 
How  did  it  do  the  scratching?  Then  when  it  found 
something  good  to  eat  what  did  it  do?  (Picked  it  up 
quickly  with  its  bill  and  swallowed  it.)  What 
happens  when  a  hen  with  her  little  chickens  finds 
something  good?  (She  calls  her  little  chickens  with 
some  quick  clucks  and  lets  them  have  what  she  has 
found.  When  they  get  over  being  hungry  she  feeds 
herself.)  How  can  she  see  the  little  seeds  and  bugs! 
(She  has  bright  eyes.)  Where  are  they  ?  Is  this 
well  for  her?  Why? 

We  have  spoken  of  the  hen's  food,  but  not  of  her 
drink.  What  does  she  drink?  How?  (Puts  her 
bill  into  the  water  and  then  raises  her  head.)  Does 
her  bill  move  when  in  the  water?  What  is  she 
doing?  (Filling  it.)  Why  does  she  raise  it?  (To 
let  the  water  run  down  her  throat.) 

How  do  you  think  the  rooster  that  belonged  to 
the  band  traveled?  (Walked.)  As  we  said  before, 
chickens  fly  but  little,  On  what  do  they  walk? 
(Their  toes.)  About  what  other  animal  that  walks 
on  his  toes  have  we  talked?  (The  shepherd  dog.) 
Does  the  rooster  walk  as  the  shepherd  dog  does? 
(No,  it  walks  on  the  toes  of  two  feet,  the  dog  on  the 
toes  of  four  feet.)  On  how  many  toes  does  the 


82       NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

chicken  step?  (Examine  tracks  in  snow  or  mud.) 
Does  the  hind  toe  help  any  in  walking?  Of  what 
use  is  it  ?  Are  the  front  toes  all  of  the  same  length  ? 
Which  is  the  longest?  Why  is  it  well  that  the 
chicken  has  long  toes?  (If  his  toes  were  very  short 
his  body  would  more  easily  tip  over.  He  could 
not  grasp  the  perch  well.)  Are  their  long  nails 
in  the  way  when  walking?  Why  not?  Look 
at  the  base  of  the  front  toes.  (A  little  web  is 
there.)  Why?  What  keeps  their  toes  from  being 
hurt  by  stones,  rough  dirt,  stubble,  etc.?  (They  are 
covered  by  tough,  hard  rings.)  This  long  part  from 
the  toes  up  to  the  joint  is  the  chicken's  heel.  Is  the 
heel  naked  ?  (No,  covered  by  plates  of  tough,  hard 
skin.)  Have  you  ever  seen  any  chickens  with 
feathers  on  the  heel  and  toes  ?  Notice  how  tiny 
are  the  little  chicken's  toes.  Can  they  get  about 
well? 

Did  you  ever  call  the  chickens  to  feed  them?  Did 
they  hear  you?  Then  what  did  they  do?  How  can 
the  chickens  hear  when  we  call?  Have  they  ears? 
Did  you  ever  see  them?  [Very  likely  the  children 
may  never  have  thought  of  a  chicken's  ears.]  The 
teacher  calls  attention  to  the  ears  on  the  tame  hen, 
or  better,  the  children  find  them.  Why  is  it  well 


THE    CHICKEN  83 

that  her  ears  are  so  small?  Why  do  the  ears  need 
to  be  thus  protected? 

It  is  said  that  the  hen's  scent  is  good,  as  well  as  her 
hearing.  How  can  we  find  out  if  this  is  so?  Where 
is  this  hen's  nose?  (The  children  will  find  its  nos- 
trils, quite  likely.)  Are  they  protected? 

Now  look  at  this  hen  and  tell  me  what  you  like 
about  her  looks.  (Her  feathers  are  pretty.)  What 
is  it  that  you  admire  about  her  feathers?  What  else 
do  you  think  is  pretty  about  the  hen?  (She  wears  a 
pretty  red  comb  on  top  of  her  head.)  How  do  you 
like  the  looks  of  the  little  chicks?  (They  are  cun- 
ning.) How  are  they  dressed?  (In  fluffy  down.) 
With  their  round  bodies  and  heads,  and  tiny  wings 
and  bill,  and  bright  little  eyes,  they  make  a  beautiful 
sight. 

Where  did  these  little  chicks  come  from?  (From 
eggs.)  How  do  you  know?  Tell  what  care  the  eggs 
must  have  that  they  may  hatch.  (Before  the  chickens 
are  hatched,  the  mother  hen  must  sit  on  the  eggs 
three  weeks,  keeping  them  warm  all  the  time,  or  they 
are  kept  warm  in  an  incubator.)  How  does  the  hen 
get  food  and  drink?  (She  leaves  the  nest  just  long 
enough  to  get  food  and  water.)  Would  you  know  a 
sitting  hen  were  you  to  meet  one?  How?  When 


84      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

the  little  chicks  are  ready  to  leave  the  shell,  who 
opens  their  shell  door  for  them?  (They  do.)  How? 
(Notice  the  little  drill  on  the  bill.)  Do  you  see  it  on 
the  bills  of  the  older  chickens?  At  what  time  of  the 
year  do  these  little  chicks  come  into  the  world  ?  (In 
warm  weather,  usually,  in  spring  or  summer.)  Why 
not  in  cold  weather?  How  do  they  get  a  living 
when  young?  How  many  little  chicks  has  the 
mother  often  to  scratch  for?  Does  she  complain 
about  her  hard  work?  (No,  she  likes  it.)  How  does 
she  call  her  little  chicks  when  she  finds  a  nice  worm? 
Does  she  talk  with  them  as  she  walks  out  ?  What 
does  she  say  ?  And  how  do  the  little  chicks  answer 
her?  (By  a  happy  little  "peep,  peep.")  But  when 
one  gets  out  of  sight  of  its  mother  or  gets  into 
trouble  ?  (Then  it  cries  a  loud,  long,  lonesome  wail, 
until  its  mamma  hears  it  and  runs  to  it,  or  some  per- 
son comes  to  help  it.  It  is  a  good  thing  that  a 
chicken  can  let  us  know  when  it  is  in  trouble.) 

What  kind  of  sound  does  the  mother  make  when 
she  sees  a  hawk  in  the  sky  or  a  snake  in  the  grass  ? 
What  does  this  sound  tell  the  little  chickens  to 
do  ?  (To  hide  in  the  grass.)  Does  the  mother  hide, 
too  ?  (No,  she  is  ready  to  fight  for  her  babies  if  there 
is  need  of  it.)  How  can  she  fight?  (With  her  bill, 


THE   CHICKEN  85 

wings,  and  feet.)  Did  you  ever  see  her  fight  an 
enemy  ?  Tell  about  it.  Teacher  also  relates 
instances. 

How  old  are  the  little  chickens  when  the  feathers 
begin  to  grow  ?  Where  do  you  first  notice  these  new 
feathers  growing?  How  big  are  the  little  roosters 
when  they  begin  to  crow  ?  How  well  do  they  crow? 
Tell  how  they  look  when  trying  to  crow. 

Review  the  life  of  the  little  chick  from  the  time 
the  hen  goes  on  to  the  nest  to  begin  her  sitting,  up  to 
the  time  when  the  feathers  begin  to  grow. 

How  else  are  eggs  used  besides  for  sitting  ?  Chil- 
dren tell  of  the  many  uses  of  eggs.  How  do  we 
know  that  a  hen  has  laid  an  egg  ?  (She  cackles.) 

Various  drawings  are  made  from  time  to  time. 
The  old  hen  and  a  little  chick  are  represented  side 
by  side,  showing  the  difference  in  size. 

Frequent  reproductions  are  given  by  the  children 
on  topics  assigned  by  the  teacher,  as :  "  Tell  how  the 
mother  hen  protects  her  babies;  "  "Tell  how  the  hen 
cares  for  her  feathers." 


86      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

XI 

IDENTIFICATION    OF   BIRDS 

The  employment  of  games  in  teaching  the  names 
of  the  birds  in  first  grade  makes  the  recitation 
very  enjoyable,  gives  a  chance  for  exercising  the 
little  bodies,  and  facilitates  the  learning  of  the  names 
of  the  common  birds.  A  few  games  only  will  be 
suggested ;  the  resourceful  teacher  will  think  of  many 

others. 

i.    HUNTING   BIRDS 

The  colored  pictures  of  birds  with  which  the 
children  are  becoming  acquainted  may  be  placed 
about  the  room  on  the  blackboard  ledge.  The 
children  hunt  birds.  One  is  sent  for  a  junco,  another 
for  a  chickadee,  etc.  Only  one  trial  is  given  any 
child.  The  children  see  who  can  find  the  most 
birds.  The  teacher  must  see  to  it  that  each  child  is 
called  upon  as  many  times  as  every  other  child. 

2.    SIX   LITTLE  BIRDIES 

(In  this  game  each  child  holds  the  small  colored 
picture  of  the  bird  he  represents.) 

Six  little  birdies, 
Very  much  alive ; 


IDENTIFICATION    OF    BIRDS  8? 

The  wren  flew  south, 
And  then  there  were  five. 

Chorus.     Little  wren,  little  wren, 
Happy  and  gay, 
Little  wren,  little  wren, 
Flew  away. 

Five  little  birdies 
Wished  there  were  more ; 
Bluebird  flew  south, 
And  then  there  were  four. 

Chorus.     Bluebird,  bluebird,  etc. 

Four  little  birdies 
Sitting  in  a  tree ; 
Robin  flew  south, 
And  then  there  were  three. 

Chorus.     Robin,  robin,  etc. 

Three  little  birdies 
Wondered  what  they'd  do ; 
Blackbird  flew  south, 
And  then  there  were  two. 

Chorus.     Blackbird,  blackbird,  etc. 


88   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR .  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Two  little  birdies 
Hadn't  much  fun  ; 
Kinglet  flew  south, 
And  then  there  was  one. 

Chorus.     Kinglet,  kinglet,  etc. 

One  little  nuthatch 

Left  all  alone ; 

He  went  too, 

And  then  there  was  none. 

Chorus.     Nuthatch,  nuthatch,  etc. 

—  Arranged  by  ETHEL  PATCHIN. 
(Sing  to  the  tune  of  «  Five  Little  Chickadees.") 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  PLAYING.  —  The  teacher  or  one  child  sings 
the  stanzas,  the  children  joining  in  the  chorus.  As  soon  as  the 
child  representing  the  wren  hears  the  wren's  name  sung,  he  flies 
from  the  ring.  If  he  fails  to  respond,  he  is  caught,  and  another 
becomes  the  wren. 

The  number  playing  this  game  need  not  be  limited  to  six. 

3.    THE   BIRDS'  PARTY 

Several  little  girls  have  pinned  upon  each  a  tiny 
bow  of  ribbon,  indicating  the  bird  which  she  repre- 
sents ;  e.g.  the  robin  has  a  bow  of  robin-red  ribbon 
pinned  upon  the  breast,  the  red-winged  blackbird 


IDENTIFICATION    OF    BIRDS  89 

has  a  bow  of  scarlet  ribbon  pinned  upon  the 
shoulder,  the  bluebird  has  a  bow  of  blue  upon  the 
back. 

A  number  of  boys,  corresponding  to  the  number 
of  girls,  are  sent  out  of  the  room  while  the  girls  are 
receiving  their  names.  On  their  return  each  is 
given  a  name  corresponding  to  that  given  to  one  of 
the  little  girls.  As  they  stand  about  the  room  the 
teacher  nods  to  one,  and  he  says,  "  I  am  Sir  Robin 
looking  for  my  mate."  (As  he  speaks  he  flies  about 
among  the  girls,  looking  for  the  one  wearing  the 
robin-red  ribbon.)  When  he  has  found  her  he  says 
—  "  Hasten  with  me  (Jennie)  lest  we  be  late,"  and 
they  fly  to  a  corner  of  the  room,  where  they  are 
received  by  a  host  and  hostess  who  welcome  them 
and  give  them  perches  (chairs  or  seats  upon  a  strip 
of  carpet). 

As  soon  as  Sir  Robin  finds  his  mate,  another 
starts,  in  like  manner,  looking  for  his  mate,  and  so 
the  game  moves  along  rapidly. 

When  all  have  arrived  at  the  party,  the  couples 
form  into  line,  led  by  the  host  and  hostess,  and  fly 
airily  about  the  room ;  then  at  a  signal  from  the 
teacher  each  little  bird  takes  his  mate  home,  bow- 
ing to  her  politely  as  he  leaves  her. 


9O      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

4.    TEST   EXERCISES 

Children  who  have  observed  closely  quite  a 
number  of  birds  will  enjoy  occasionally  test  exer- 
cises like  the  following  :  — 

(a)  What  birds  that  you  know  wear  some  robin- 
red?     (In  Northern  Illinois  this  list  will  quite  likely 
contain   the   robin,   the    bluebird,   the    catbird,   the 
orchard   oriole,   the    red-breasted    nuthatch.)      The 
pupil  who  has  the  longest  correct  list  is  the  winner 
in  the  contest. 

Make  a  list  of  all  of  the  birds  which  you  know 
which  wear  white ;  black ;  yellow ;  blue ;  red ; 
brown. 

(b)  What  is  the  smallest  bird  you  know?     Name 
other  little  birds. 

What  is  the  largest  bird  you  know  ?  Name  other 
large  birds. 

(c)  Which  of  your  bird  acquaintances  feed  upon 
seeds?     On  worms?     On  insects  in  the  air?     On 
insects  under  the  bark  of  trees?     On  fruit? 

(d)  What    birds   which  you    know   run?      Hop? 
Walk?     Which   ones   get   about  in  more   than  one 
way? 

(e)  What  birds  perch  on  the  trunks  of  trees  ?  etc. 


THE   ROBIN  91 

XII 
THE   ROBIN 

NOTE  TO  THE  TEACHER. — This  study  of  the  robin  will  con- 
tinue during  the  whole  of  the  spring  term.  It  is  not  intended 
that  it  should  be  carried  on  for  a  week  or  two  on  consecutive 
days  and  then  dropped.  The  different  phases  in  the  life  of  the 
robin  —  first  appearance,  appearance  of  the  females,  nest  building, 
incubation,  flight  from  the  nest,  care  of  fledgelings  after  leaving 
the  nest  —  will  be  studied  as  they  appear  in  the  life  of  the  robin. 
Studies  of  other  birds,  of  flowers,  and  of  trees  will  be  carried 
along  with  the  study  of  the  robin.  The  children  will  be  watch- 
ing the  robins  every  day,  but  only  when  there  is  something  inter- 
esting to  report  will  a  recitation  period,  or  part  of  a  period,  be 
given  up  to  talks  about  it.  The  teacher  herself  must  be  as  alert 
in  observing  as  the  children,  and  have  as  much  or  more  to  con- 
tribute to  the  recitation.  She  will  give  her  observations  if  there 
is  time  for  her  to  talk,  or  if  these  observations  will  materially 
contribute  to  the  children's  interest  in  the  robin,  but  she  must  not 
rob  the  children  of  a  chance  to  tell  what  they  have  seen. 

See  who  will  be  first  this  spring  to  see  a  robin. 
[The  older  children  will  write  down  the  date  of  its 
appearance,  in  notebooks  made  by  them.  A  page 
or  more  in  this  nature  notebook  is  devoted  to 
notes  on  the  robin,  which  the  children  make  from 
time  to  time  as  something  particularly  interesting 
occurs.  The  teacher  writes  the  date  of  the  robin's 
arrival  on  the  board  for  the  younger  children.] 
Notice  the  gay  dress  of  these  robins  that  are  the 


Q2      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

first  to  come.  These  are  the  males.  Describe  their 
dress.  What  do  they  do  on  bright  days  ?  Where 
do  they  perch  while  singing  ?  What  is  their  song  ? 
Do  they  always  sing  the  same  song  ?  Do  they  sing 
on  the  wing  ?  What  other  sounds  do  they  make  ? 
How  do  they  call?  Where  do  they  perch  when 
calling?  For  what  are  they  calling? 

What  do  the  robins  do  on  dark,  cold,  or  even 
snowy  days  ?  To  what  places  do  they  go  for  shelter  ? 
How  can  you  help  them  on  such  days  ?  What  will 
you  feed  them?  (Crumbs,  bits  of  suet,  or  meal 
worms.)  Where  will  you  put  their  food  ?  (If  pos- 
sible, out  of  the  reach  of  cats.  A  window  ledge  is 
a  good  place.) 

You  said  they  were  calling  for  the  females ;  how 
can  you  tell  when  the  females  arrive  ?  (Their  dress 
is  not  as  bright  as  the  males'  dress.  They  seem 
plumper.)  Why  is  it  well  that  they  do  not  wear  so 
bright  colors  as  the  males  ?  (They  are  not  so  likely 
to  be  killed.  If  a  female  were  killed,  quite  likely 
she  would  leave  a  nest  of  eggs  unhatched,  or  helpless 
babies.  Her  color,  being  rather  dull,  will  not  attract 
so  much  attention  while  she  sits  on  her  nest.)  Do 
the  females  sing  ?  Do  they  utter  any  sound  ?  What  ? 

Where  have  the  robins  been?      When  did  they 


THE   ROBIN  93 

leave  here  ?  Why  ?  (Because  they  could  not  find 
food.)  What  food  do  they  eat?  (Worms,  bugs,  and 
other  insects,  grubs,  berries,  and  early  cherries.) 
Where  do  they  find  worms  ?  How  find  them  ?  (Their 
bright,  round  eyes  see  well.)  What  color  are  their 
eyes  ?  How  do  they  pick  up  the  worms  ?  (With 
their  sharp  pointed  bills.)  Have  you  ever  seen  a 
robin  picking  up  a  worm  ?  Tell  what  it  did.  [If  the 
children  have  not  noticed  how  a  robin  gets  a  worm, 
set  them  at  work  observing,  and  ask  them  to  relate 
their  observations  in  the  class.]  What  is  the  color 
of  the  robin's  bill  ?  How  do  robins  get  about  on  the 
ground  ?  Find  out.  (They  hop  sometimes,  at  other 
times  they  run.)  When  they  want  to  go  very  fast 
which  do  they  do  —  hop  or  run  ?  Do  they  ever  walk  ? 
Notice  how  they  watch  for  worms.  Do  they  scratch 
for  them  ?  What  do  they  use  for  pushing  the  dead 
leaves  aside?  (Their  bills.)  Watch  them.  What 
insects  have  you  seen  them  eating?  Where  did 
they  find  them?  Tell  how  they  get  berries  from 
the  bushes.  How  do  they  get  cherries  from  the 
trees  ?  Do  they  swallow  them  whole  ?  How  do  you 
know  they  do  not?  (We  find  on  the  trees  cherries 
which  they  have  pecked.)  Notice  whether  they  eat 
good  cherries  or  wormy  ones. 


94   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  robins  have  other  work  to  do  besides  getting 
food  for  themselves.  This  is  the  month  of  May  —  a 
busy  month  with  robins.  What  are  they  doing? 
(Making  nests.)  Where  do  they  make  their  nests? 
In  what  part  of  a  tree?  (In  the  crotch,  or  angle 
formed  by  two  branches,  usually,  but  sometimes  out 
on  the  branch.)  What  trees  do  they  seem  to  like  best? 
Why  build  in  trees?  (The  leaves  protect  the  nest 
from  observation.  They  shield  it  from  the  rain  and 
from  the  sun  and  from  the  wind.)  How  high  in  the 
tree  are  the  nests?  Of  what  shape  is  the  robin's  nest? 
Of  what  built  ?  [The  teacher  should  have  several 
robins'  nests  gathered  in  the  fall,  after  the  robins 
have  flown.]  The  typical  robin's  nest  is  made  up  of 
three  parts :  the  outside,  of  weeds,  roots,  straw,  and 
small  sticks,  woven  together;  the  middle,  of  mud, 
held  together  by  some  fine  material ;  the  inside,  of 
grass,  with  sometimes  a  few  hen  feathers  and  moss. 
Which  bird  made  the  nest?  (The  mother  bird,  or  both.) 
What  did  the  male  do  when  the  female  built  alone  ? 
(He  watched  the  nest  and  sang,  and  sometimes  went 
to  meet  the  female,  when  returning  with  straw,  etc.) 
How  much  did  she  bring  at  a  time?  (A  mouthful. 
Then  her  mate  watched  her  closely  while  she  wove 
the  material  into  the  nest.)  How  could  the  mother 


THE    ROBIN  95 

give  the  mud  this  shape?  (She  sat  down  on  her  nest 
and  pressed  her  breast  against  it, — now  here,  now 
f  there.  You  could  see  her  tail  moving  around  in  a 
circle  as  she  molded  her  nest.)  How  did  she  get 
the  coarse  material  in  shape  for  the  outside?  (With 
her  bill  and  claws.  Her  claws  and  toes  are  her 
hands.)  [Study  of  these  as  adapted  to  grasping 
and  holding,  if  the  teacher  has  a  live  robin.  If  not, 
it  is  enough  to  know  that  she  does  use  her  toes  for 
fingers.]  How  long  does  it  take  to  build  the  nest? 
(Three  or  four  days  ;  sometimes  less.)  When  the 
nest  is  all  done,  what  happens?  (The  mother  bird 
lays  some  eggs.)  How  many?  (One  on  each  day 
until  from  two  to  six  are  laid.)  Of  what  size  are 
the  eggs?  (They  are  about  the  size  of  some  of 
the  little  candy  Easter  eggs.)  Of  what  color? 
(Bluish  green.)  Is  that  a  good  color  for  them? 
Why?  The  color  resembles  that  of  the  leaves  of 
the  tree,  so  the  eggs  are  not  readily  noticed. 

Does  anything  ever  disturb  these  eggs?  (Some- 
times blue]  ays,  crows,  blackbirds,  or  owls  go  to  the 
robin's  nest  and  steal  all  of  the  eggs.)  What  if  the 
robins  should  see  one  of  these  birds  near  the  nest? 
(They  would  raise  a  terrible  cry,  call  their  neighbors, 
and  flutter  about  until  the  bird  might  be  glad  to  leave.) 


96   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Are  the  robins  ever  disturbed  while  on  their 
nests?  (Sometimes  at  night  an  owl  will  go  to  the 
nest,  snatch  off  the  mother  with  its  bill,  then  eat 
up  the  eggs  or  even  the  baby  birds.)  Sometimes 
in  the  daytime  a  black  snake  will  climb  the  tree, 
scare  off  the  mother  bird,  then  steal  the  eggs  or 
baby  birds.  What  do  the  parents  do  about  this? 
(They  fly  all  about  the  snake  and  try  to  peck  it 
and  drive  it  away,  but  it  is  not  afraid  of  the  old 
birds,  and  sometimes  catches  them,  too.) 

Do  you  know  of  anything  else  that  steals  robin's 
eggs?  (Sometimes  thoughtless  or  cruel  boys  take 
them.  They  have  not  the  excuse  that  the  owl,  crow, 
and  snake  have,  for  boys  do  not  need  the  eggs  at 
all.  The  robins  cannot  hurt  the  boys  —  defend 
their  nests  against  them.  The  boys  know  this,  so 
they  take  the  eggs.)  What  do  you  think  of  that? 

What  does  the  mother  do  with  the  eggs  if  they 
are  spared  to  her?  (She  sits  on  them.)  How  long? 
(About  twelve  days.)  Does  she  never  leave  the 
nest?  (Only  to  get  food  and  bathe.  While  she  is 
gone,  her  mate  sits  on  the  nest.)  Did  you  ever  see 
a  robin  bathing?  (A  robin  bathes  in  water  every 
day.)  How  does  it  bathe?  Where?  [Watch  and 
see.]  Many  people  help  the  birds  by  putting  fresh 


THE     ROBIN  97 

water  in  a  pan  upon  a  post  where  the  birds  can  get 
it.  Why  not  put  the  water  on  the  ground?  (Cats 
might  get  the  birds.) 

After  the  robin  has  been  sitting  about  twelve 
days,  what  happens  ?  How  do  the  young  robins 
look  ?  (They  are  naked  and  blind,  and  seem  to  be 
nearly  all  mouth.  When  a  little  over  a  week  old, 
for  the  first  time  they  see  their  parents  and  brothers 
and  sisters.  They  never  know  quite  how  ugly  they 
look  at  first,  for  when  they  open  their  eyes  their 
feathers  have  begun  to  grow.)  What  becomes  of 
the  eggshells  after  the  birds  are  out?  (The  papa 
robin  pushes  them  out  of  the  nest  with  his  bill,  and 
he  now  cleans  out  the  nest  whenever  it  needs  it.) 

How  do  the  baby  robins  spend  their  time  ?  (Eat- 
ing and  sleeping.)  What  do  they  eat  ?  How  get 
their  food?  (The  papa  and  mamma  feed  them.) 
Do  they  eat  much  ?  (They  keep  their  parents  hunt- 
ing food  nearly  all  the  time.)  How  do  the  parents 
give  the  food  to  their  children? 

Since  these  birds  eat  so  much,  they  must  grow 
very  fast  Does  their  home  grow,  too  ?  (No ;  so 
the  house  is  soon  too  small  for  so  many  big  birds.) 
What  will  be  done  about  it  ?  (The  birdies  will  have 
to  leave.  When  about  three  weeks  old  they  bid 


98      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

good-by  to  their  home.)  How  large  are  they  now  ? 
How  are  they  dressed?  (Very  much  as  their 
parents  are  dressed,  only  their  vests  are  spotted 
instead  of  plain  orange.)  How  will  they  get  out 
into  the  world  ?  (They  must  learn  to  fly.)  Did 
you  ever  watch  any  young  robins  learning  to  fly  ? 
Tell  what  they  did.  How  did  the  parents  act? 
Watch  for  young  robins  learning  to  fly  this  sum* 
mer,  and  tell  what  they  do.  Do  they  learn  to  fly 
well  ? 

After  the  young  robins  have  left  the  nest,  do 
they  go  back  at  night  ?  (They  never  go  back.  But 
they  are  not  old  enough  to  feed  themselves.  The 
parents  take  care  of  them  after  they  leave  the  nest 
until  they  learn  to  take  care  of  themselves.)  Tell 
what  you  have  noticed  about  the  parents  feeding 
these  big  children  of  theirs. 

If  this  was  the  first  brood  of  the  summer,  the 
mamma  bird  may  go  to  work  immediately  to  build 
another  nest  and  lay  some  more  eggs.  She  usually 
builds  this  nest  near  the  first  one.  Sometimes  a 
mamma  robin  makes  three  nests  in  one  summer  and 
raises  three  families.  She  has  little  time  for  rest, 
aside  from  that  spent  on  her  nest. 

What  enemies  have   the   little  birds?    (The   cat 


THE  RED-HEADED  WOODPECKER        99 

is  one  of  its  worst  enemies.)  How  can  kitty  catch 
the  birds?  What  other  enemies?  (Squirrels  and 
owls  carry  off  the  helpless  little  birds.)  What  can 
you  do  to  protect  them  ? 

Next  fall  we  will  see  how  late  in  the  season  the 
robins  stay  with  us.  How  long  have  they  been  with 
us  already  ?  Watch  them  all  summer  and  tell  in  the 
fall  what  interesting  things  you  have  seen  them  do. 

XIII 
THE   RED-HEADED   WOODPECKER 

At  the  beginning  of  the  spring  term  the  chil- 
dren are  asked  to  watch  for  red-headed  woodpeck- 
ers and  report  the  first  one  seen,  as  they  notified 
us  of  the  first  appearance  of  the  robin.  To  make 
sure  that  the  children  know  what  bird  they  are 
to  look  for,  the  teacher  asks :  "  How  many  know 
this  bird  ? "  "  Tell  how  it  looks."  (It  wears  a  red 
cap,  a  bluish  black  coat,  with  white  skirts  (when  at 
rest),  and  a  white  vest)  The  female  dresses  like  the 
male,  only  her  colors  are  not  so  bright,  and  she  is 
a  smaller  bird.  [Show  a  stuffed  specimen  or  colored 
picture.]  The  red-headed  woodpecker  is  late  in 
coming. 


IOO     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

What  bird  have  we  been  talking  about?  (The 
robin  redbreast.)  And  what  other  bird  have  we 
been  looking  for?  (The  red-headed  woodpecker.) 
How  many  have  seen  one  ?  What  was  it  doing  ? 
(Knocking  on  tree  trunks,  running  up  trees,  or  fly- 
ing.) Why  were  the  woodpeckers  knocking  on  the 
trees  ?  (They  were  making  holes  through  the  bark.) 
Why?  (To  get  at  the  grubs  or  insects  under  the 
bark.)  How  can  a  woodpecker  make  this  hole? 
(A  stuffed  specimen  would  be  of  use  in  studying 
the  bill  as  adapted  to  its  work;  if  this  cannot  be 
had  a  good  picture  could  be  used  to  advantage,  for 
the  children  cannot  get  close  enough  to  the  bird  to 
examine  its  bill.  There  is  a  good  picture  in  Hooker's 
"  Child's  Book  of  Nature,"  Part  II,  and  in  "  Birds  " 
there  is  an  excellent  colored  picture.)  (Its  bill  is 
long,  straight,  and  pointed.)  How  much  noise  does 
it  make  knocking  ?  How  does  it  sound  ?  When  it 
has  the  hole  made,  how  does  it  get  the  grub  ? 
(It  thrusts  out  its  long,  narrow,  pointed  tongue. 
The  end  of  its  tongue  is  hard  and  has  little  teeth 
pointing  backward  in  this  way  —  showing  by  dia- 
gram on  the  board.  It  can  run  this  tongue  out 
far  beyond  the  end  of  its  bill  and  do  it  very  quickly. 
When  a  grub  is  once  pierced  by  this  hook  it  cannot 


THE  RED-HEADED  WOODPECKE'R  '       101 

get  away,  for  the  barbs  hold  it  on.  But  sometimes 
an  insect  is  too  small  to  be  pierced  in  this  way; 
such  are  caught  by  a  sort  of  glue  that  is  on  the 
end  of  the  tongue.  They  get  stuck  fast  in  it.) 
[If  there  is  any  danger  that  the  children  may  not 
understand  the  latter  statement,  a  child  might  take 
a  little  glue  on  his  finger  and  notice  how  all  small 
particles  that  he  touches  with  his  finger  cling  to  it.] 
Can  you  tell  now  why  this  bird  is  called  a  wood- 
pecker? Does  it  harm  the  trees  to  be  bored  into  in 
this  way  ?  (They  do  not  often  bore  into  a  tree  unless 
they  hear  a  grub  or  bug  under  the  bark.)  What  if 
these  grubs  were  left  in  the  tree?  (They  might  kill 
it.)  Do  trees  that  are  healthy  have  insects  under  the 
bark?  (No.)  What  kind  of  trees,  then,  does  a  red- 
headed woodpecker  peck?  (Only  those  that  need 
the  woodpecker  to  take  away  the  insects  that  injure 
them.)  Did  you  ever  see  them  peck  at  the  bark  of 
dead  trees?  Do  you  think  they  were  there  for 
insects  ?  Strip  off  the  bark  from  a  dead  tree  and  see 
if  you  can  find  insects  there. 

Upon  what  does  the  woodpecker  sit  while  break- 
ing into  the  grub's  house?  (It  does  not  sit  at  all,  it 
stands  up.)  How  can  it  do  this?  (Have  stuffed 
specimen  or  a  good  picture  in  the  class  to  show  how 


16*2      Is  AT  U  RE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

the  toes  hold  it.  If  neither  is  to  be  had,  put  a 
diagram  on  the  board.)  (It  has  four  toes,  two  in 
front  and  two  behind.  They  have  strong,  sharp, 
curved  claws.  These  claws  catch  into  the  wood 
before  and  behind,  and  hold  it  firmly.)  Does  it 
use  anything  but  its  claws?  [Children  find  out  for 
themselves.]  (It  has  a  long  and  very  stiff  tail.  The 
ends  of  the  feathers  are  pointed,  and  these  are  pressed 
into  the  wood  and  prop  the  bird  up,  just  as  this  brace 
—  showing  one  —  holds  this  board  up.)  Does  it  seem 
afraid  of  falling  when  running  up  a  tree?  (No,  it 
goes  with  as  much  ease  as  you  run  on  the  sidewalk.) 

Do  the  red-heads  get  insects  in  any  other  places 
than  under  the  bark  of  trees?  (They  find  them  on 
the  outside  of  the  bark  and  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  on 
the  ground  also.)  How  do  you  know?  Where  else 
do  you  see  insects?  (In  the  air.)  Do  the  red-heads 
ever  catch  them  while  in  the  air?  Watch  and  see. 
They  catch  beetles  and  wasps  while  on  the  wing. 

Do  they  eat  anything  except  grubs  and  insects? 
What?  (Cherries,  berries,  apples,  and  pears.)  How 
do  they  eat  them?  [Children  observe.]  Leander 
Keyser  says  that  they  sometimes  dig  out  holes  in  the 
top  of  posts,  in  dead  tree  trunks,  or  in  stumps,  and 
hide  fruit.  He  saw  a  red-head  press  a  berry  into  one 


THE   RED-HEADED    WOODPECKER  IO3 

of  these  holes,  then  suck  out  its  juice.  Sometimes 
these  birds  catch  a  cherry  or  a  berry  on  the  fly, 
but  usually  they  alight  near  enough  to  it  to  reach 
it  with  their  bills.  Do  they  swallow  a  berry  whole  ? 
[Children  find  out.]  Do  they  carry  off  a  whole 
cherry  ?  Find  out. 

Do  you  know  of  anything  else  that  red-heads  feed 
upon  ?  (Once  in  a  while,  but  not  often,  you  will  find 
a  red-head  boring  holes  into  good  trees  for  the  sap.) 
Have  you  noticed  these  holes  ?  How  did  they  look  ? 
(They  often  extend  around  the  tree  in  a  circle.)  It  is 
another  woodpecker  that  does  most  of  the  sucking. 
They  suck  the  sap  out  of  these  little  wells.  After  a 
while  the  wells  fill  up  again,  when  the  woodpeckers 
suck  them  dry  as  before.  What  little  insects  that 
like  sweets  do  you  know  ?  Where  might  they  go  for 
them?  (To  these  wells.)  What  might  happen  to 
them  here?  (The  red-heads  might  make  a  dinner 
off  them.)  [Dr.  Lockwood  thinks  this  is  one  of  the 
purposes  of  these  wells.] 

Do  you  think  the  red-headed  woodpecker  is  a 
pretty  good  bird  to  have  around  ?  Why  ?  (Review.) 

What  is  the  only  harm  we  have  found  this  wood- 
pecker doing  thus  far?  Ought  we  to  welcome  them 
when  they  come  back  in  the  spring?  Why?  Do  they 


104     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

come  at  the  same  time  as  the  robin?  When  did  we 
hear  the  first  robin  ?  When  the  first  red-headed  wood- 
pecker? Could  you  tell  that  he  was  here  without 
seeing  him  ?  (Yes,  by  his  drumming.)  How  did  it 
sound?  ("Tap!  tap!  tap!"  very  fast,  then  "tap! 
tap !  "  very  loud,  with  a  pause  between  the  two  taps.) 
What  did  he  use  for  his  drum  ?  (A  dry  limb  or  some- 
times a  shingle  on  the  house.)  What  did  he  use  to  beat 
the  drum  with?  (His  bill.)  Does  he  never  sing? 
(No ;  and  he  is  too  happy  to  keep  still,  so  he  beats  a 
drum  to  make  music.)  Does  he  have  but  one  drum? 
(Each  woodpecker  has  a  favorite  place  where  he 
goes  to  drum.  One  spring  one  wakened  me  very 
early  every  morning  by  drumming  on  a  shingle  in 
the  roof  just  above  my  head.  Woodpeckers  drum  in 
other  places,  too,  as  they  fly  about  getting  their  food.) 
Find  out  whether  they  do  most  of  their  drumming  in 
the  morning  or  in  the  afternoon.  How  early  do  they 
begin  ?  When  you  hear  one,  run  and  ask  your  mamma 
what  time  it  is.  Do  they  drum  very  long  at  a  time  ? 
Do  they  drum  constantly,  or  stop  to  rest  a  little  once 
in  a  while?  What  do  they  do  when  resting?  The 
drumming  seems  to  be  a  call  to  the  mate.  See  if  the 
children  arrive  at  this  conclusion  by  noticing  that  the 
bird  acts  as  if  he  were  listening,  and  later  is  some- 


THE    RED-HEADED    WOODPECKER  10$ 

times  joined  by  the  female.  Does  he  drum  at  all 
when  his  mate  is  with  him  ?  (Yes,  and  she  seems  to 
think  him  a  fine  musician.)  Is  this  the  only  sound 
you  hear  a  red-headed  woodpecker  make?  (He 
makes  a  shrill,  lively  sound,  in  which  there  is  no 
music.)  See  if  you  can  make  it.  You  may  tell  all 
you  know  about  the  music  of  a  red-headed  wood- 
pecker. (Review.) 

Where  do  red-headed  woodpeckers  sleep  at  the 
end  of  their  long,  busy  day?  [Leave  the  children 
to  find  this  out  for  themselves  if  they  can.  Let 
them  watch  near  a  nest  if  there  be  one  near  their 
home.]  (They  sometimes,  early  in  the  season,  sleep 
in  holes  in  trees,  but  Leander  Keyser  says  that 
they  usually  sleep  on  an  upright  or  oblique  perch, 
clinging  with  their  stout  claws,  with  their  heads 
pillowed  in  the  feathers  on  their  backs.) 

After  the  red-headed  woodpecker  has  called  his 
mate  they  two  go  to  work  building  a  nest.  Where  ? 
(In  the  trunk  of  a  dead  tree  that  is  not  too  soft  or  in 
a  branch,  a  fence  post,  or  a  telegraph  pole.  When 
made  in  a  branch  it  is  usually  on  the  under  side.) 
Why  ?  How  do  they  make  it  ?  (They  cut  out  a  round, 
smooth,  straight  hole  right  in  front  of  them,  with  their 
bills.  They  make  it  large  enough  around  so  that  the 


IO6      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

bird  can  go  in.  When  the  woodpecker  has  gone  in 
five  inches  or  so  —  show  distance  by  a  mark  on  the 
board  —  he  begins  to  work  downward,  making  the 
hole  larger  and  larger  as  he  goes  down  ten  or  twenty 
inches  —  show  by  line.)  [If  not  possible  for  the 
children  to  see  a  nest,  the  teacher  should  give  them 
a  clear  idea  of  it  by  a  diagram  on  the  board.]  You 
have  learned  that  the  mamma  robin  sometimes 
builds  the  nest  alone.  Which  is  the  harder  to  make, 
the  robin's  nest  or  the  red-headed  woodpecker's? 
(The  red-head's.)  Will  the  mamma  have  help,  do  you 
think?  (Yes,  the  papa  bird  does  half  of  the  work.) 
Can  they  work  together  ?  Why  not?  (The  mamma 
bird  often  works  just  about  as  long  as  the  time  you 
spend  in  this  class,  —  twenty  minutes,  —  then  she 
flies  to  an  upper  limb  and  calls  her  mate  in  her 
shrill  voice.  When  he  comes  she  seems  to  tell  him 
how  much  she  has  done,  and  they  talk  over  their 
plans  together.  Then  the  papa  bird  flies  to  the  nest 
and  works  about  as  long  as  the  mamma  worked, 
while  she  flies  away  for  food  and  rest.  Then  the 
papa  bird  calls  the  mamma  bird  and  tells  her  about 
his  work,  etc.)  How  do  they  get  the  chips  out  of 
the  nest?  (Carry  the  coarse  ones  out  with  their 
bills.)  How  is  the  nest  lined?  (The  fine  wood  or 


THE    RED-HEADED    WOODPECKER  IO/ 

sawdust  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  nest,  and  this 
forms  a  soft  bed  for  the  eggs.)  Is  this  a  good  kind 
of  nest  for  a  bird  to  have?  Why  do  you  think  so? 
(It  is  protected  from  the  storms,  and  from  the  birds 
and  animals  that  trouble  the  robin's  nest.)  What 
ones?  But  there  is  one  animal  that  troubles  the 
robin's  nest,  which  can  easily  get  into  this  nest. 
What  is  that?  (The  blacksnake.)  Quite  often  it 
steals  the  woodpecker's  eggs  or  birds. 

Do  these  birds  go  to  all  this  work  to  make  a  nest 
every  year,  or  do  they  use  the  same  nest  year  after 
year?  (They  make  a  new  nest.  They  do  not  use 
a  hole  which  they  find  already  in  a  tree.)  Can  you 
see  the  eggs  or  the  tiny  woodpeckers  in  the  nest? 
Why  not?  How  many  eggs?  (Six,  usually.)  How 
do  they  look?  (They  are  more  nearly  round  than 
are  the  robin's  eggs  and  are  larger  than  hers. 
They  are  pure  white  and  very  smooth.)  How  can  you 
tell  when  there  are  little  woodpeckers  in  the  nest 
if  you  cannot  see  them?  (If  you  are  near  the  tree, 
you  can  hear  the  babies  cry.  They  are  big  eaters, 
and  nearly  all  the  time  they  are  teasing  for  food.) 
Who  feeds  them?  (The  mamma  and  papa.)  What 
do  they  feed  them?  (Bugs,  moths,  grasshoppers, 
etc.)  When  they  are  big  enough  to  fly  about,  how 


108      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

can  you  tell  them  from  their  parents?  (The  first 
summer  their  heads  are  not  red,  but,  instead,  a  very 
dark  gray,  and  their  wings  are  spotted  black  and 
white.  The  white  on  their  breasts  is  not  pure 
white,  but  dirty-looking.) 

Do  these  brothers  and  sisters  have  good  times 
playing?  (Yes,  and  the  father  and  mother  play, 
too.)  Children  watch  them  and  tell  what  games 
they  play.  And,  if  you  have  a  chance,  watch  one 
during  a  shower  and  see  what  it  does.  [The 
teacher  should  call  for  their  observations  and  re- 
late her  own,  throughout  the  summer  term  and 
again  in  the  fall.  The  children  should  be  taught 
to  be  very  wary  in  watching  birds ;  try  to  keep 
out  of  their  sight  as  much  as  possible,  and  keep 
quiet] 

What  other  woodpeckers  have  you  seen?  De- 
scribe them.  What  one  is  often  seen  on  the 
ground?  (The  flicker.)  What  ones  are  with  us 
through  the  winter?  (The  downy  and  the  hairy 
woodpeckers.) 


THE   COMMON    CROW  IOQ 

XIV 
THE   COMMON   CROW 

How  do  you  keep  warm  this  cold  weather?  How 
do  we  protect  horses,  cows,  and  sheep  from  the 
cpld  winds  and  the  snows  and  sleet  storms  ?  What  do 
we  do  for  the  chickens,  geese,  ducks,  and  turkeys? 
But  there  are  some  birds  for  which  we  do  not 
think  of  providing  shelter,  even  on  the  coldest 
days  or  in  the  most  severe  storms.  What  are 
they  ?  Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  how  one  of  these 
birds  —  the  crow  —  lives  through  the  winter.  Do 
you  all  know  the  crow?  How  can  you  tell  it  from 
other  birds  ?  (It  is  large,  and  has  a  glossy  black 
coat.  Its  bill,  legs,  and  toes  are  also  black.  In- 
stead of  singing  or  chirping,  it  says  "  Caw.") 

What  keeps  this  queer  bird  from  freezing?  (Its 
feather  coat.)  How  is  it  adapted  for  keeping  out 
the  cold  and  snow  and  shedding  the  rain?  How 
are  the  legs  and  toes  protected  when  roosting? 

Where  does  it  make  its  home  in  the  winter? 
(Usually  in  evergreen  trees.)  Is  this  a  good  place  ? 
Why?  (The  thick  foliage  protects  it  from  the  cold 
winds  and  it  is  hidden  from  the  view  of  those  who 


IIO     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

might  wish  to  shoot  it.)  Does  it  need  anything 
besides  a  good  coat  and  a  sheltered  home  to  keep 
it  alive  in  the  winter?  (It  must  have  food.)  What 
does  it  eat?  Let  us  watch,  this  winter,  and  see  if 
we  can  find  out  for  ourselves.  [The  teacher  should 
frequently  ask  for  the  results  of  the  children's 
observations  and  give  them  her  own,  then  they  will 
think  her  questions  are  not  idle  ones.  The  chil- 
dren may  find  that  it  eats  mice,  carrion,  hens'  eggs, 
corn,  acorns,  nuts,  frozen  apples  from  the  boughs  of 
trees,  and  the  fruits  of  poison  ivy,  poison  sumac 
and  other  sumacs,  sand,  and  gravel.  They  may 
discover  also  that  it  drinks  a  great  deal  of  water. 
Careful  observations  made  by  the  children  will 
arouse  in  them  a  more  than  transient  interest  in 
the  object  studied.  This  the  teacher  should  work 
for  constantly,  and  feel  quite  sure  that  her  work 
amounts  to  but  little  if  the  children  are  not  inter- 
ested enough  to  watch,  outside  of  school,  the  move- 
ments of  the  animals  studied.] 

Let  the  children  tell  what  they  have  observed  in 
regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  crow  catches 
and  kills  the  mice.  What  does  it  do  with  the 
hens'  eggs?  Where  and  how  does  it  get  the  fruits 
of  ivies  and  sumacs?  Why  eat  sand  and  pebbles? 


THE    COMMON    CROW  III 

[Recall  what  they  discovered  in  the  chicken's  giz- 
zard.] How  is  the  bill  fitted  for  getting  this  kind 
of  food?  (It  is  long,  pointed,  hard,  and  strong.) 
Does  it  find  plenty  of  food?  Did  you  ever  hear 
this  expression,  "As  poor  as  a  crow"?  Many  times 
crows  have  a  hard  time  in  the  winter  to  find 
enough  food.  They  become  very  poor  and  some- 
times they  even  starve  to  death. 

Can  you  get  close  enough  to  crows,  usually,  to 
tell  how  fast  they  eat?  Why  are  they  so  afraid? 
Why  do  men  and  boys  shoot  them?  Are  they 
any  more  afraid  of  a  man  who  carries  a  gun  than 
of  one  without?  How  can  crows  get  a  chance  to 
eat  if  they  are  watching  for  men  all  of  the  time? 
(They  have  sentinels  out  watching.  These  warn 
the  flock  of  any  approach  of  danger.)  What  kind 
of  warning  do  they  give  ?  How  is  this  warning 
received  by  the  crows?  What  follows? 

What  takes  the  crow  away  from  danger?  (Its 
strong,  large  wings  carry  it  away.)  Does  it  fly  high  ? 
How  do  you  know?  Does  flying  seem  to  tire  it? 
Study  the  adaptability  of  its  wings  to  flight.  Do 
crows  fly  singly  or  in  flocks?  [Children  notice.]  Is 
this  so  at  all  times  of  the  year?  We  will  notice  how 
they  go  next  spring. 


112      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

Have  they  no  other  way  of  getting  about  than 
by  flying?  (They  walk  on  the  ground.)  Have  you 
ever  seen  them  walk?  Were  their  steps  long  or 
short  ?  How  did  they  hold  their  bodies  ?  Do  they 
ever  run  ?  Do  they  hop  ?  Why  were  they  on  the 
ground  ?  Did  you  ever  see  a  crow's  tracks  in  the 
mud  or  in  the  snow  ?  How  many  tracks  did  each 
foot  leave?  Picture  on  the  board. 

What  is  the  crow's  work  in  the  winter?  Is  this 
all  it  does  the  whole  year  through  ?  (No,  in  spring 
it  builds  its  nest.)  How  early?  Did  you  ever  see 
it  building  its  nest?  Have  you  ever  seen  a  crow's 
nest?  Why  do  we  so  seldom  see  one?  (They  are 
built  high  up  in  trees — very  often  in  evergreen 
trees.) 

[Have  a  nest  in  the  class  if  possible.]  This  nest 
was  taken  from  a  tree  after  all  the  little  crows 
were  grown  up.  The  crows  never  use  the  same 
nest  for  two  seasons,  so  we  know  they  will  not 
need  their  old  home  any  more. 

Of  what  is  it  built?  (The  outside  is  made  of 
twigs  and  sticks,  the  inner  wall  of  grasses,  leaves, 
and  bark  from  cedar  trees  or  grape  vines.  Some 
of  their  nests  are  lined  with  hair.) 

Early  next    spring   we  will    begin   watching    the 


THE   SCREECH   OWL  113 

crows  to  see  if  we  can  find  in  what  trees  they 
build  their  nests,  and  how  they  get  the  sticks,  etc., 
to  the  trees. 

How  do  you  know  that  the  crows  are  about  when 
you  cannot  see  them  ?  (They  flap  their  wings 
noisily  and  cry  "  Caw  !  caw  !  ") 

Abbott  says  that  crows  have  twenty-seven  distinct 
cries,  each  of  which  is  accompanied  by  a  different 
act.  [It  would  be  interesting  for  teacher  and  pupils 
to  observe  closely  and  see  if  they  notice  any  connec- 
tion between  the  movements  of  the  crows  and  their 
different  notes.] 

XV 

THE   SCREECH   OWL 

(A  WINTER  STUDY) 

What  birds  have  been  with  us  all  winter  ?  Some 
of  these  birds  are  more  often  heard  than  seen ;  which 
are  these  ?  (The  owls.)  Why  do  we  see  them  so 
seldom  ?  Have  you  ever  heard  them  ?  What  sound 
did  they  make  ?  (Some  cry  "  Hoo !  hoo  !  "  others 
make  a  sound  variously  likened  to  "the  coo  of  a 
dove  with  the  sweetness  left  out,"  "  the  whining  of  a 
puppy,"  "the  grating  of  machinery,"  "the  wailing 
of  a  little  child.") 


114     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

We  shall  talk  of  the  ones  that  make  the  wailing 
cry.  On  account  of  the  unpleasant  music  which 
they  make  they  have  been  given  a  name  of  which 
they  cannot  be  very  proud.  What  is  it?  (The 
screech  owls.) 

Have  you  ever  seen  a  screech  owl  ?  What  was  it 
doing?  What  kind  of  looking  bird  was  it?  (Per- 
haps of  a  grayish  color,  or  it  may  be  of  a  rusty  red 
color,  with  lighter  and  darker  markings.  It  is  from 
eight  and  a  half  to  ten  inches  long.  The  children 
show  this  by  placing  the  hands  so  far  apart.) 

At  what  time  of  day  was  it  when  you  heard  the 
screech  owl  ?  Was  it  talking  in  its  sleep  ?  (No,  the 
night  is  the  busy  time  of  day  for  the  screech  owl.) 
About  what  is  it  so  busy  ?  (Getting  its  dinner  and 
breakfast.  These  are  such  hearty  meals  that  it 
needs  no  luncheon  in  the  middle  of  the  day.) 
What  do  they  find  to  eat  ?  (Mice,  English  sparrows, 
and  other  small  birds,  eggs  of  birds,  frogs,  small 
snakes,  fish,  grasshoppers,  crickets,  beetles,  moths, 
the  cockchafer  so  injurious  to  fruit  trees,  and  cut- 
worms, which,  like  the  owl,  turn  their  night  into  day.) 

At  what  time  did  you  say  the  screech  owl  catches 
the  mice  ?  (At  night.  Both  the  owl  and  the  mouse 
like  to  hunt  after  dark.)  How  can  the  owl  see  the 


THE   SCREECH    OWL  11$ 

little  mouse  ?  (It  has  large,  bright  eyes.  These  are 
in  front  of  its  head,  so  that  it  can  fix  both  upon  one 
object.)  Study  the  eye.  How  large  the  pupil  is ! 
Why  ?  Of  what  does  it  remind  you  ?  Notice  the 
yellow  curtain  —  iris  —  which  surrounds  this  pupil. 
Only  a  little  of  it  shows  at  night.  Why  not? 
Each  eye  is  surrounded  by  a  disk  of  short,  stiff 
feathers.  Have  a  screech  owl  in  a  cage  in  the 
class  if  possible. 

Let  us  see  how  screech  owls  catch  and  eat  mice. 
Where  do  they  find  them  ?  (In  shocks  of  corn,  in 
their  field  nests,  about  barns  and  corn  cribs,  running 
over  the  snow.)  How  do  they  catch  them  ?  (Swoop 
down  upon  them  and  grasp  them  with  their  long, 
sharp  claws.)  Study  the  very  sharp,  long,  strong, 
curved  claws  on  the  strong  flexible  toes,  as  to  their 
adaptability  for  catching  and  holding  prey.  Notice 
the  reversible  outer  toe.  How  does  the  owl  use  it  ? 
We  are  very  glad  that  the  owl  kills  the  little  mouse 
almost  instantly. 

How  does  it  eat  the  mouse?  (Often  tosses  it  up 
with  its  bill  in  such  a  way  that  the  head  comes  down 
into  the  owl's  mouth;  then  it  makes  one  big  gulp, 
but  often  a  second  is  needed  before  the  mouse  is 
down,  tail  and  all.)  Are  you  surprised  that  it  eats  the 


Il6     NATURE   STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

whole  mouse  ?  What  parts  should  you  think  it  might 
better  have  left  out?  (The  hair,  teeth,  and  bones.) 
Examine  these  little  balls  found  at  the  foot  of  a  tree 
in  which  an  owl  had  a  nest.  [The  children  find  here 
hair,  teeth,  bones,  feathers,  etc.]  Where  could  these 
have  come  from  ?  The  owl,  a  few  hours  after  eating 
a  mouse  or  a  bird,  throws  up  one  of  these  balls. 
Look  in  the  owl's  cage  for  the  balls. 

Why  do  not  the  mice  get  out  of  the  owl's  way  ? 
(The  owl  makes  almost  no  noise  when  flying,  on 
account  of  the  soft  feathers  which  line  the  wings 
and  cover  the  body.)  Study  the  wings  with  reference 
to  their  fitness  for  noiseless  flight 

Owls  often  know  when  a  mouse  is  near,  even 
though  the  mouse  be  out  of  sight.  How  is  that  ? 
It  hears  it.  Where  are  its  ears  ?  [The  children  will 
call  the  tufts  of  feathers  on  the  top  of  its  head  the 
ears.  If  you  have  a  stuffed  specimen,  let  them 
discover  that  there  are  no  ears  there.  They  will 
find  large  ears,  covered  by  feathers,  just  outside  the 
disk  of  feathers  surrounding  the  eye.  This  is 
the  only  bird  that  has  an  outer  ear.]  Notice  how 
the  feathers  are  arranged  just  outside  the  ear. 
How  does  this  help  its  hearing  ?  Why  is  it  well 
that  the  ears  are  covered  with  feathers  ? 


THE    SCREECH    OWL  117 

What  else  does  the  owl  eat  ?  (Small  birds.  These, 
too,  it  kills  almost  immediately.)  How  does  it  catch 
them  ?  Does  it  swallow  them  whole  ?  (No,  it  tears 
them  in  pieces.)  Do  the  birds  know  that  the  owl 
is  their  enemy?  How  do  they  treat  it?  (If  they 
find  an  owl  in  the  daytime,  they  make  a  terrible 
commotion.  All  the  birds  gather  together  and  scream 
at  it,  flying  as  close  to  it  as  they  dare.  When  it 
flies  away  they  follow  it,  calling  it  hard  names.) 

How  does  the  owl  catch  its  other  food?  How 
much  of  this  food  can  it  get  in  the  winter?  Does 
it  go  out  hunting  on  the  coldest  nights  ?  (In  the 
warmer  weather  it  often  stores  up  enough  food  to 
last  it  a  week  or  more,  and  mature  owls  often  go  a 
week  without  any  food,  not  seeming  to  mind  it.) 

What,  besides  food,  does  it  need  ?  (Water.)  It  is 
a  great  drinker.  Owls  are  sometimes  caught  by  cut- 
ting holes  in  the  ice.  They  come  here  to  drink  and 
are  captured. 

Is  the  screech  owl's  coat  well  fitted  for  a  bird  which 
must  make  a  living  in  the  winter  as  well  as  in  the 
cold,  damp  nights  in  warmer  weather  ?  Study  care- 
fully the  plumage  of  the  owl  as  adapted  to  its  protec- 
tion from  cold  and  damp.  Unlike  many  other  birds, 
the  legs  are  covered  their  whole  length  with  feathers, 


118   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

and  the  feathers  even  run  down  each  toe.  What 
care  does  it  take  of  this  thick,  soft,  light  coat  ?  (It 
bathes  very  frequently,  and  enjoys  its  bath  greatly.) 

Where  were  the  screech  owls  which  you  saw? 
(Peeping  out  from  the  hollow  of  a  tree  or  among  the 
thick  foliage.)  Very  likely  you  nearly  passed  an  owl 
without  seeing  it,  for  they  keep  very  quiet  and  do 
not  cry  out  if  they  see  a  person  coming.  Its  color 
helps  the  owl  to  escape  notice.  How  is  this?  Why 
do  its  bright  eyes  not  attract  the  notice  of  people? 
(They  are  nearly  closed  in  the  daytime.) 

Find  out  all  you  can  about  how  the  owl  makes  a 
living. 

SPRING   STUDY   OF  THE   OWL 

We  have  learned  how  the  owl  makes  a  living  for 
itself.  Does  it  never  care  for  others?  There  must 
be  little  owls  sometimes.  When  do  you  think  the 
little  owls  come?  (In  warm  weather,  in  May  or  June.) 
Have  you  ever  seen  an  owlet?  Where  was  it?  Per- 
haps in  a  rotten  hole  in  an  apple  tree.  How  far  from 
the  ground  was  the  hole?  (Not  higher  than  this 
room,  ten  feet.)  How  is  the  nest  made  ?  (The  owls 
choose  a  hole  in  a  tree, — they  do  not  make  one, 
as  does  the  woodpecker.  This  hole  is  often  not 
lined  at  all.  There  is  rotten  wood  in  the  bottom, 


THE    SCREECH    OWL 

and  often  dry  leaves  which  have  been  blown  into  it; 
but  sometimes  the  mother  adds  a  few  feathers  from 
her  breast,  and  sometimes  the  parents  line  the  nest 
roughly  with  dry  grass.) 

What  kind  of  eggs  are  laid  in  this  nest?  (Four  or 
more  round,  white  eggs.)  Which  bird  sits  on  the 
eggs?  (The  female;  and  during  the  day  the  male, 
too,  sits  there  if  the  nest  is  roomy  enough;  if  not,  he 
chooses  a  hollow  tree  near  by.)  How  long  does  it 
take  the  eggs  to  hatch  ?  (About  one  month  after  the 
first  egg  is  laid,  the  little  owls  are  out  of  the  shell.) 

How  do  they  look  when  first  hatched?  Did  you 
ever  see  one?  [If  possible,  the  children  should  see 
one  before  the  season  is  over.  It  is  a  sight  they 
will  never  forget.]  (The  owlets  are  at  first  covered 
with  a  yellowish  white,  downy  coat.  They  look  like 
fluffy  balls.) 

How  long  do  they  stay  in  the  nest?  (About  a 
month.  Then  they  scramble  out  on  the  branches. 
They  can  climb  like  cats.)  Did  you  ever  try  to  catch 
one  ?  What  did  it  do  ?  (Snapped  its  bill  viciously.) 

How  are  they  cared  for,  while  growing  up?  (Both 
father  and  mother  are  kept  very  busy  providing  these 
hearty  children  with  food.  It  would  be  a  sad  thing 
for  the  babies  if  one  of  their  parents  should  be  killed 


120     NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

ere  they  were  old  enough  to  provide  for  themselves. 
We  hope  for  their  sake  that  this  may  never  happen. 
Before  cold  weather  comes,  every  owlet  is  grown 
and  able  to  care  for  itself.) 

Frequent  reviews  should  be  made  by  topic,  as, 
"  Tell  how  the  eyes  fit  the  screech  owl  for  work  at 
night,"  or,  "  In  what  respect  does  the  owl  resemble 
the  cat?"  (Its  head  looks  like  the  cat's,  it  hunts  at 
night,  it  likes  mice  and  birds  to  eat,  it  can  climb, 
etc.) 

XVI 

THE   ENGLISH    SPARROW 

This  is  a  bird  which  we  may  study  at  our  doors  all  the  year 
round.  No  inducement  need  be  offered  to  bring  it  near,  it 
never  fails  us.  Since  the  bird  is  so  common  we  should  know 
its  habits  well,  but  in  truth  we  know  little  about  it.  Juncos  and 
sparrows  that  we  love  for  their  music  are  often  called  by  its 
name,  because  so  few  take  pains  to  identify  this  very  common 
bird. 

How  can  you  tell  the  male  from  the  female? 
(The  male  has  much  chestnut  in  the  coloring  of  its 
coat  and  it  wears  a  black  goatee.  The  female  wears 
a  light-colored  dress  in  the  coloring  of  which  is  no 
chestnut,  and  it  has  no  black  on  its  throat.) 

Where   does   the   English   sparrow   live?      When 


THE   ENGLISH    SPARROW  121 

does  it  leave  us  in  the  fall?  (It  stays  all  winter.) 
Most  of  the  other  birds  have  to  go  south ;  how  can 
the  English  sparrow  stay?  (It  lives  upon  grains, 
crumbs,  and  refuse  that  it  finds  in  the  streets.) 
Where  does  it  stay  during  the  winter?  How  does 
it  get  about  upon  the  ground?  Watch  for  its  tracks 
in  the  snow.  How  does  it  protect  its  feet  in  the  cold 
weather? 

Where  does  it  build  its  nest?  What  kind  of 
nest  does  it  make?  Of  what  does  it  build  it? 
How  many  eggs  does  it  lay?  What  color?  Which 
of  the  parents  feeds  the  young  birds,  or  do  both 
work?  Watch  each  as  it  brings  food  to  the  young, 
and  notice  which  makes  the  more  ado  about  it. 
Notice  carefully  what  is  fed  to  the  young.  Watch 
the  fledgelings  as  they  leave  the  nest,  and  describe 
what  you  see. 

Why  are  there  so  many  more  of  the  English  spar- 
rows than  of  the  songsters  we  love?  [The  children 
will  tell  how  the  English  sparrows  drive  the  other 
birds  away  and  take  their  nesting  places  from  them.] 
The  wrens,  bluebirds,  and  martins  all  suffer  at  their 
hands.  Notice,  too,  how  late  in  the  season  some  of 
these  birds  are  still  building  nests,  even  in  cold 
weather.  Sometimes  the  young  are  raised  and 


122      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

hatched  even  in  the  winter  time,  so  industrious  is 
this  bird.  The  best  way  to  drive  the  bird  away  is 
to  destroy  the  nests  before  the  young  are  hatched. 
It  would  be  cruel  to  harm  the  helpless  young  birds. 

How  could  you  tell  without  looking  that  the  Eng- 
lish sparrows  are  about?  (By  the  constant  chirp.) 
What  is  their  song?  (They  have  none.) 

What  are  their  good  points?     Their  bad  points? 

XVII 
CATERPILLARS 

These  numerous  little  visitors  are  a  very  interest- 
ing study  for  all  grades  in  our  public  schools.  Few 
people  see  in  one  of  these  odd  little  creatures  a 
whole,  wonderful  life  history.  This  is  not  the  fault 
of  the  caterpillar,  however,  for  its  manner  of  life  is 
quite  open  to  the  inspection  of  any  one  who  cares  to 
know  of  it,  and  it  is  certainly  a  pleasure  to  be  able  to 
say  to  one  of  these  little  folks:  "How  do  you  do? 
I  am  glad  to  make  your  acquaintance,  for  I  knew 
your  mother,  whom  you  never  saw.  She  showed  her 
devotion  to  her  children  by  making  the  best  prepara- 
tion possible  for  satisfying  their  babyhood  wants. 
For  before  your  life  was  begun  hers  was  ended ;  so 


CATERPILLARS  123 

she  made  it  possible  for  you  to  care  for  yourself.  I 
saw  her  one  day  seeking  a  home  for  you.  She  chose 
a  place  which  she  knew  you  would  like,  and  there,  on 
the  leaf  of  a  plant  like  the  one  upon  which  you  are 
now  feeding,  she  laid  the  egg  from  which  you  came. 
She  did  not  crawl  up  the  stalk,  but  flew  lightly  down 
to  the  plant.  Does  not  that  seem  strange  to  you? 
Do  you  remember  how  happy  you  were  when  you 
crept  from  your  shell  and  found  your  dinner  waiting 
for  you?  Why  did  you  eat  up  the  house  in  which 
you  had  been  staying?  Did  you  fear  that  an  enemy, 
on  seeing  that,  might  know  that  you  were  near? 
Eat  away,  my  little  fellow;  that  is  your  business  at 
present.  No  one  should  call  you  a  glutton.  Under 
the  same  circumstances  your  accusers  would  do  no 
better.  You  must  eat,  in  two  or  three  weeks, 
enough  to  last  you  the  remainder  of  the  fall,  and  all 
winter,  besides.  No  wonder  you  give  yourself  up  to 
business  so  thoroughly." 

As  the  caterpillar  eats  away,  some  little  child,  per- 
haps, picks  the  leaf  on  which  it  rests  and  places  both 
in  a  box,  or  he  gently  brushes  the  caterpillar  into  the 
box,  puts  fresh  leaves  beside  it,  and  carries  it  home 
or  to  school,  where  he  may  watch  it.  That  all  the 
children  at  school  may  see  all  of  a  caterpillar's 


124     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

movements  well,  it  is  put  into  a  glass  which  is  cov- 
ered with  netting  or  perforated  paper.  Two  or  three 
times  a  day  the  children  supply  it  with  fresh  leaves, 
removing  the  wilted  ones  and  occasionally  cleaning 
the  glass.  The  little  captive  seems  quite  contented 
so  long  as  it  has  plenty  of  fresh  food  of  the  kind  that 
it  likes  best,  and  a  good  appetite. 

Often  we  find  caterpillars  on  the  walks  or  in  the 
road;  these  must  be  tested  with  a  variety  of  food 
until  leaves  are  found  which  they  will  eat.  The 
hairy  caterpillars  which  I  found  this  summer  con- 
tented themselves  with  the  leaves  of  the  smartweed 
or  a  closely  allied  plant.  The  plantain  was,  also, 
accepted  by  several.  But  whenever  possible  to  know 
its  choice,  the  caterpillar  has  been  fed  the  food  which 
it  likes  best. 

Some  of  the  caterpillars  may'  begin  spinning,  or 
otherwise  changing,  the  day  on  which  they  are  cap- 
tured. When  we  find  one  spinning  at  school,  we 
pass  the  glass  to  the  children  for  their  inspection, 
taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  little  worker.  Some 
lesson  may  suffer  for  this  interruption,  but  the  chil- 
dren have  a  bit  of  experience  all  their  own,  which 
they  would  not  care  to  part  with,  and  school  is 
made  pleasanter  for  this  little  break  in  the  routine. 


CATERPILLARS  125 

Long  after  most  of  the  other  lessons  are  forgotten, 
the  children  will  look  back  with  pleasure  upon 
these  happy  moments  of  discovery. 

It  has  been  our  good  fortune  twice  this  fall  to 
see  a  hairy  caterpillar  divesting  itself  of  its  hairs 
that  it  might  weave  them  into  its  coverlet.  It 
seemed  to  require  no  effort.  Did  it  pull  them  out 
or  bite  them  off?  I  am  not  sure.  It  did  not 
appear  to  carry  them  in  its  mouth.  How,  then,  did  it 
carry  them  ?  This  question  must  be  solved  by  further 
observation.  How  deftly  it  wove  those  hairs  into  its 
cocoon,  spreading  them  very  evenly  over  its  surface ! 
How  could  that  clumsy-looking  body,  with  the  still 
clumsier  fleshy  feet,  move  over  that  web  with  never 
a  trip  or  a  break  of  the  dainty  silk?  In  what  a 
businesslike  way  the  weaving  was  done,  —  the  thread 
coming  from  its  mouth  as  needed,  and  placed  in 
position  by  movements  of  its  head  and  front  legs. 
When  the  top  of  the  cocoon  is  to  be  thickened,  it, 
lying  within,  turns  upon  its  back  and  weaves  away 
as  if  this  were  its  natural  position.*  It  really  never 
seems  awkward  when  making  its  house,  yet  this 
is  the  first  one  it  ever  built,  and  it  will  never  have 
an  opportunity  to  build  another. 

Several  of  the  caterpillars  use   leaves   as  a  par- 


126     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

tial  or  a  complete  outside  cover.  These  are  woven 
firmly  together  and  lined  with  silk. 

Once,  in  a  very  close  little  home,  in  which  there 
seemed  not  room  enough  to  stir,  the  caterpillar 
turned  completely  around,  end  for  end.  It  moved 
with  dignity  and  grace.  We  could  not  tell  exactly 
how,  for  we  did  not  understand  its  intentions  at 
first. 

One  of  the  caterpillars  which  we  watched  snipped 
off  small  portions  of  the  leaves  in  the  glass  and 
wove  these  into  its  outer  cover.  They  made  the 
cocoon  look  very  pretty,  scattered  regularly  over 
its  surface.  Why  did  it  do  this?  Has  a  caterpillar 
an  eye  for  beauty? 

I  have  named  but  few  of  the  many  queer  things 
which  we  noticed  while  the  hairy  caterpillars  made 
ready  for  their  sleep. 

The  glasses  which  held  the  cocoons  were  placed 
in  a  dry  cellar  late  in  the  fall,  where  they  were 
kept  until  early  spring,  when  they  were  again 
watched  by  the  children  for  the  housebreaking. 

In  the  fall  work  on  the  caterpillars,  the  children 
note  the  changes  and  give  orally  the  history  of 
each  caterpillar  so  far  as  they  have  observed  it. 
They  also  write  portions  of  this  history.  They 


CATERPILLARS  I2/ 

make  drawings  of  the  caterpillar  and  its  chrysalis, 
or  the  cocoon.  The  chrysalis  and  caterpillar  are 
molded  in  clay  and  placed  side  by  side  on  a  plaque. 
The  older  children  can  do  more.  They  can  keep 
a  book,  which  they  might  name  "  Life  Histories  of 
Caterpillars."  They  number  the  glass  in  which  each 
little  prisoner  is  confined,  and  write  on  the  first  page 
a  few  facts  about  Caterpillar  No.  i ,  viz. :  — 

(a)  Hairy  or  smooth. 

(b)  Length,  color,  and  any  striking  characteristic 
in  appearance ;  number  and  position  of  legs. 

(c)  When  and  where  found.     Food  on  which  it  is 
fed. 

(d)  Any  peculiarities  in  its  actions. 

The  next  page  is  devoted  to  The  Cocoon  or  Chrysa- 
lis of  No.  I. 

(a)  Length  and  shape  of  the  cocoon  and  manner 
in  which  it  was  made ;  also  time  of  making. 

Or  description  of  the  chrysalis,  with  account  of  the 
gradual  change  and  date  of  its  consummation. 

The  third  page  is  devoted  to  The  Moth  (or  Butter- 
fly) of  No.  I. 

(a)  When  did  it  come  out?     Description  of  the 
method  of  releasing  itself. 

(b)  Description  of  the  moth  (or  butterfly). 


128      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

(c)  From  what  flowers  does  it  get  its  nectar? 
Color  of  these  flowers? 

On  the  fourth  page  is  given  a  record  of  The  Eggs 
and  Growth  of  No.  I. 

(a)  Where  were  the  eggs  laid?     How  many  in  a 
place?     Color?     Form?     Size? 

(b)  How  long  did  it  take  the  eggs  to  hatch? 

(c)  How    long   does    it    take    the    caterpillar    to 
mature  ?     How  many  moultings  ? 

It  may  be  some  time  before  this  page  is  filled  out, 
but  watchfulness  will  reward  the  patient  seeker. 
Quite  likely  more  than  one  page  may  be  needed  for 
some  of  the  descriptions. 

Many  cocoons  are  found  in  the  fall.  What  cater- 
pillar made  them  is  a  mystery,  so  our  first  entry  in 
the  book  will  be  on  the  page  devoted  to  the  cocoon 
or  chrysalis. 

This  book  may  be  used  season  after  season,  until 
every  caterpillar  is  known  through  its  whole  series 
of  changes. 

It  is  a  wonder  that  more  boys  and  girls  living  on 
farms  do  not  make  a  study  of  caterpillars,  learning  to 
distinguish  the  harmful  from  the  harmless.  Through 
knowledge  of  the  habits  of  those  which  are  injurious 
to  trees,  vegetables,  etc.,  the  eggs  of  their  moths  or 
butterflies  might  be  found  and  destroyed. 


THE  CABBAGE  BUTTERFLY  I2Q 

XVIII 
THE  CABBAGE  BUTTERFLY 

Have  you  seen  butterflies  in  a  "  cabbage  patch  "  ? 
Of  what  color?  What  were  they  doing  there? 
Watch  them  closely  and  see  if  you  can  find  out. 
(They  were  laying  eggs.)  Where  did  they  lay  the 
eggs?  What  was  their  color?  Why  was  it  well  that 
they  were  of  this  color?  How  many  were  there 
together  ? 

The  teacher  might  well  bring  to  the  class  a  head 
of  cabbage  on  which  are  some  of  these  eggs.  Keep 
in  a  shady,  cool  place  where  the  leaves  will  not  wilt, 
and  allow  the  children  to  look  at  the  eggs  every  day. 

Encourage  them  also  to  watch  those  on  one  head 
in  their  gardens  at  home.  In  about  ten  days  from 
the  time  the  eggs  were  laid  they  will  hatch  out  into 
tiny  green  caterpillars.  Is  it  well  for  them  that  their 
color  is  green  ?  Why  ?  What  do  they  do  as  soon  as 
they  come  from  the  egg  ?  (Go  to  eating  the  leaves.) 
Why  did  the  mother  lay  the  eggs  just  where  she  did? 

A  few  of  these  caterpillars  may  be  put  into  a  glass 
and  supplied  with  fresh  leaves  every  day.  The  top 
should  be  covered  with  paper  in  which  there  are 


I3O     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

holes  for  the  air  to  pass  through.  The  children 
will  feed  the  caterpillars  and  watch  their  growth. 
They  grow  to  their  full  length,  one  and  one-half 
inches  or  less,  in  about  three  weeks. 

What  happens  when  they  are  fully  grown  ?  (They 
hang  themselves  up.)  How?  Where  does  the  silk 
come  from?  (From  the  mouth.)  In  the  body  of  the 
caterpillar  are  two  long  bags  which  hold  a  sticky  fluid. 
This  fluid  flows  through  a  tube  which  ends  in  the 
middle  of  the  lower  lip.  The  fluid  hardens  as  soon 
as  it  comes  to  the  air. 

Does  the  caterpillar  hang  with  its  head  up  or 
down?  Then  what  happens?  (It  throws  off  its 
caterpillar  skin.)  Make  a  picture  of  it  as  it  hangs 
now. 

The  children  note  the  day  when  it  goes  into  its 
chrysalid  state,  and  watch  for  it  to  come  out.  They 
will  need  to  watch  about  eleven  days  if  the  study 
is  begun  early  in  the  season.  It  will  be  a  joyful 
moment  for  them  if  they  are  so  fortunate  as  to  see 
it  leave  its  home.  How  does  it  go  to  work  to  get 
out?  (It  begins  to  move  about,  a  slit  comes  on  its 
back,  and  it  puts  its  head  out;  then  the  rest  of 
its  body  comes  out,  and  the  little  green  house  is 
left  empty.) 


THE    MILKWEED    CATERPILLAR  13! 

The  children  now  have  the  whole  life  of  the 
cabbage  butterfly  learned  from  their  own  obser- 
vation. They  will  never  forget  it.  It  helps  them 
to  interpret  the  life  of  all  caterpillars. 

They  will  gather,  feed,  and  watch  other  cater- 
pillars. Not  all  of  them  will  change  into  butter- 
flies —  some  will  become  moths ;  and  by  comparison 
they  will  find  these  differences  between  butterflies 
and  moths :  — 

(a)  A   butterfly  flies   in   the  daytime,  a  moth  by 
night. 

(b)  A  butterfly   holds    its   wings    erect  when   at 
rest.     The  wings  of   a  moth  lie  flat,  or   slant  like 
the  roof  of  a  house. 

(c)  A  butterfly  has  knobbed  feelers.     A  moth's 
feelers  are  not  knobbed. 

XIX 

THE   MILKWEED   CATERPILLAR 
HATCHING  OF  THE  EGG 

[What  the  older  boys  and  girls  may  see  if  they  look 
closely.] 

On  the  afternoon  of  August  12  we  found  an 
egg  of  the  milkweed  butterfly  on  the  center  of 


132     NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

the  under  side  of  a  milkweed  leaf.  It  was  cylin- 
drical, with  a  conical  top.  In  color  it  resembled 
a  pearl. 

In  the  morning,  three  days  later,  the  cone  at  the 
top  of  the  cylinder  was  found  to  have  turned  black 
or  purple,  and  later  in  the  day  black  specks  were  seen 
in  the  cylinder.  About  twelve  o'clock  two  bright 
dots,  looking  like  bubbles,  appeared  on  the  purple 
dome,  and  kept  shifting  from  one  point  to  another. 
Suddenly  there  was  a  bright  flash  which  looked 
as  if  a  blow  from  within  had  cracked,  into  many 
pieces  the  dome,  but  it  was  not  broken.  There 
were  now  seen  to  be  rapid  motions  inside  the  egg. 
The  dome  looked  to  be  made  of  dainty  silver 
rafters  with  still  daintier  crosspieces.  Now  the 
jaws  of  the  imprisoned  caterpillar  began  cutting 
the  silver  rafters  at  the  base  of  one  side  of  the 
dome.  The  light  which  was  admitted  changed  the 
silver  rafters  to  rows  of  beads, — red  separated  by 
short  gold  ones.  A  large  hole  was  eaten  in  the 
side  of  the  cylinder,  then  the  black  head  of  the  tiny 
caterpillar  was  thrust  out,  followed  by  its  white 
body,  which  bore  a  mere  suggestion  of  yellow 
rings. 

The   shell,   after  the   caterpillar  had  left  it,  was 


THE    MILKWEED    CATERPILLAR  133 

beautiful  beyond  description.  It  was  like  rare  filigreed 
silver,  the  pattern  being  the  daintiest  of  feathers. 

The  caterpillar  nosed  about  for  a  few  minutes, 
then  went  back  to  the  shell  and  took  a  few  bites 
of  it ;  left  it,  as  if  its  freedom  from  cramped  quarters 
made  it  too  happy  to  eat,  but  in  ten  minutes  re- 
turned to  it  again  and  ate  voraciously  for  five 
minutes  or  so;  then  after  further  investigation  of 
its  premises  returned  to  the  egg  for  a  larger 
meal. 

The  day  after  this  little  caterpillar  came  out,  it 
was  killed  by  kindness.  The  teacher  moved  it  to  a 
fresh  leaf.  It  was  too  young  to  be  disturbed,  and 

died. 

MOULTING 

On  August  6  of  the  following  year  we  procured 
a  milkweed  caterpillar  not  more  than  one  fourth  of 
an  inch  long.  It  was  eating  round  holes  in  the 
milkweed  leaf.  It  was  light  green,  with  yellow  and 
black  transverse  stripes.  The  head  was  black.  On 
the  9th  of  the  month  two  black  horns  were  noticed 
on  the  front  of  the  head  and  two  shorter  black  ones 
on  the  back  of  the  posterior  extremity. 

Two  days  later  the  light  green  color  of  the  cater- 
pillar had  changed  to  bright  yellow,  of  which  there 


134     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

were  double  rows,  branching  low  down  on  the  sides. 
On  this  morning  it  attached  itself  to  the  side  of  the 
jar  by  a  web  which  it  wove,  and  there  it  hung  motion- 
less, head  downward,  for  some  time.  At  half-past 
one  o'clock  it  began  the  task  of  disrobing.  It  first 
drew  in  its  head  until  it  seemed  heavily  hooded,  and 
its  true  feet  seemed  drawn  together  under  its  chin ; 
then  began  a  series  of  shrinkings  backward  within  it- 
self, —  apparent  chokings,  shiverings,  tremblings,  and 
gaspings,  the  body  swelling  out  and  then  contracting. 
The  head  gradually  sank  farther  back  into  the  hood, 
leaving  only  a  tiny  yellow  triangle.  The  greatest 
movement  was  now  noticeable  at  the  posterior 
extremity.  The  skin  there  stretched  as  if  it  would 
break,  and  became  so  thin  we  could  see  through  it. 
At  last  the  old  skin  at  the  front  broke  and  the  cater- 
pillar worked  out  in  front,  pushing  the  skin  back  as 
it  worked  forward  until  the  old  coat  came  off  at  the 
back.  Then  the  caterpillar  threw  its  head  about 
from  side  to  side  until  the  old  headpiece  dropped  off. 
This  changing  of  the  coat  occupied  one  hour.  Occa- 
sionally the  caterpillar  rested.  After  the  old  head- 
piece had  fallen  off  the  caterpillar  went  back  into 
its  web  and  rested  about  twenty  minutes,  then  ate 
up  the  coat  it  had  just  shed.  Within  two  or  three 


THE    MILKWEED    CATERPILLAR  135 

hours  after  it  had  shed  its  skin,  it  went  to  eating  the 
fresh  milkweed  leaves. 

THE  CHRYSALID 

The  following  year  we  had  many  milkweed  cater- 
pillars in  glasses  and  watched  their  growth. 

One  morning  one  of  our  large  caterpillars  wove  a 
web  for  a  path  and  went  to  the  top  of  the  glass, 
which  was  covered  with  a  perforated  paper.  Here 
it  remained  as  if  making  plans  for  its  change. 
The  middle  of  the  afternoon  it  underwent  agonizing 
contortions.  It  threw  its  head  to  one  side  and  then 
to  the  other,  and  then  drew  it  in.  The  "feelers" 
were  working  nervously  as  the  body  worked.  Late 
in  the  afternoon  it  let  go  its  hold  on  the  cover  and 
swung  free,  being  held  to  the  cover  by  its  hind  feet, 
which  were  fastened  in  the  web  it  had  made.  In 
this  position  it  remained  quiet  part  of  the  time,  its 
head  turned  to  one  side,  and  part  of  the  time 
wriggling  to  get  free  from  its  old  coat.  In  the  night 
it  changed  to  a  beautiful  light  green  chrysalis.  We 
could  see  the  colored  stripes  of  its  coat  through  the 
thin  cover.  The  dome-shaped  top  was  narrower  in 
front.  The  dome  was  separated  from  the  body  of 
the  chrysalis  by  a  narrow  black  line,  above  which  was 


136  NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

a  row  of  small  white  dots  interspersed  with  eight 
larger  dots.  Just  above  the  larger  end  of  the  chrysalis, 
eight  yellow  dots,  occurring  at  regular  intervals,  began 
to  show.  At  the  top  there  were  six  black  dots,  ex- 
tending, in  twos,  toward  the  front  from  the  point 
of  attachment.  The  next  morning  all  the  white  on 
the  chrysalis  was  changed  to  gold,  and  a  gold  dot 
appeared  on  each  side  toward  the  front. 

We  had  not  seen  the  change  from  the  caterpillar 
to  the  chrysalis.  This  was  a  disappointment,  but 
later  we  saw  what  we  had  so  regretted  missing.  This 
caterpillar  swung  off  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening. 
I  was  up  at  half-past  four  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
It  was  gnawing  at  its  feet  industriously.  Occasion- 
ally it  threw  its  head  back.  There  was  a  great  con- 
traction and  relaxation  of  the  muscles  between  the 
black  and  white  rings,  occurring  every  second  or  so 
at  the  last.  At  the  end  these  movements  became 
very  violent,  the  skin  burst  open  on  the  back,  near  its 
head,  and  was  worked  backward  and  off,  where  it 
finally  fell  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass.  The  chrysalis 
swung  around,  first  a  few  turns  to  the  right,  then  a 
few  turns  to  the  left,  thus  forming  the  strong,  twisted 
thread  by  which  it  hung.  It  became  a  chrysalis  at 
half-past  five  o'clock  in  the  morning. 


THE    MILKWEED    CATERPILLAR  137 

THE   HOUSEBREAKING 

Twelve  days  after  the  caterpillar  became  a  chrys- 
alis, the  chrysalis  became  a  beautiful  brown  and 
black  butterfly  with  white  markings  —  the  Monarch, 
or  Milkweed,  butterfly.  The  change,  at  the  end,  was 
very  gradual.  Two  days  before  it  occurred,  the 
chrysalis  had  become  of  a  lighter  green ;  a  day  later, 
the  orange  and  black  showed  through  the  thin  chrys- 
alis shell ;  then  three  shining  points  appeared  on  each 
side,  extending  from  the  center  toward  the  bottom. 
In  front  the  veinings  of  the  wings  were  now  visible, 
then  the  limits  of  the  wings  were  plainly  marked  off 
on  the  sides.  The  margins  of  the  wings  broke 
through  a  little.  While  we  were  out  of  the  room  it 
came  out,  leaving  its  transparent  chrysalis  shell  swing- 
ing empty.  This  was  a  disappointment.  But  the  last 
chapter,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  recorded  later. 


PART  II 
PLANT  LIFE 


IDENTIFICATION    OF   FLOWERS 

HERE,  too,  as  well  as  in  identifying  birds,  the 
games  may  be  used  in  the  first  grade  with  profit 
and  pleasure,  e.g. :  — 

1.  " Flower  Game"   in   " Kindergarten   Chimes," 
Kate  Douglas  Wiggin,  p.  115. 

2.  "  Smelling,"  in  the  same  book,  p.  107. 

3.  "  Guessing  Game,"  p.  108  in  the  same   book, 
may  be  altered  in  meaning  a  little  so  as  to  become 
a  flower  or  a  leaf  game.     Each  child  has  a  flower 
pinned  upon  his  breast,  and  takes  the  name  of  the 
flower  he  wears;   so  the   "who"  in  the  third  line 
refers  to  daisy  fleabane,  or  oak,  perhaps. 

4.  In   "Touching,"   a  game  in  the  same  book, 
which   reads  in  the   second    line,   "Now  take  the 
thing  we  give  you,"  substitute  flower. 

[For  similar  games  see  "Songs  for  Little  Children," 
II,  Eleanor  Smith,  and  "Merry  Songs  and  Games," 
Hubbard.] 

141 


142     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

5.  A   pupil,    or   the   teacher,    describes    a   flower 
which  he  is  thinking  about;  the  class  name  it. 

6.  Each   of   several    children  is   provided  with  a 
flower  —  no  two  alike.     A  few  children  form  a  ring 
in  front  and  sing,  e.g. :  — 

"  We're  calling  to  you  for  a  daffodil, 

A  daffodil,  a  daffodil  ; 
We're  calling  to  you  for  a  daffodil, 

And  here  is  one." 
or 

"  And  there  is  none." 

As  soon  as  the  name  of  the  daffodil  is  spoken, 
the  child  who  has  that  flower  skips  forward  and 
enters  the  ring,  or  if  she  does  not  respond,  her 
flower  is  given  to  another. 

II 

THE   NASTURTIUM 

(A  FALL  STUDY) 

How  do  you  know  the  flower?  (By  its  color, 
shape  of  its  blossom,  its  fragrance,  its  taste,  and 
its  peculiar  leaf.) 

Each  child  is  provided  with  a  blossom.  They 
examine  it  for  the  purpose  of  describing  it  accurately, 
so  that  one  unacquainted  with  it  would  know  it 


THE   NASTURTIUM  143 

were  he  to  come  upon  it.     The  points  in  which  the 
children  will  be  interested  are  these  :  — 

(a)  The  variety  in  colors  of  the  different  flowers, 
the  variety  in  one  blossom,  the  markings  of  the  petals. 
Out-of-door  study:   What    besides  people  does  the 
color  attract?     (Bees  and  humming  birds.)     Notice 
what  these  do  when  they  come  to  the  flowers.     Find 
what  it  is  they  are  seeking  in  the  heart  of  the  flower. 
(The   juice   in   the   long    sac.)     We  call  that   the 
nectar.     Taste  of  it.     How  do  you  like  it?     See  if 
the  sac  is  full.     How  can  the  humming  bird  reach 
it  ?    the  bee  ?     Watch  a  bee  as  it  leaves  a  flower. 
What  is  it   carrying  away?      (Yellow  dust.)      On 
what  part  of  its  body  does  it  carry  it?     From  what 
did  it  come?     Where  does  the  bee  go  on  leaving 
this  blossom?    Watch  to  see. 

Notice  in  what  direction  the  lines  on  the  petals 
extend.  Can  you  think  of  any  reason  for  this  ? 
(They  show  the  bees  the  way  to  the  nectar.) 

(b)  The  shape  of  the  petals.      What  reason   can 
you  see  for  the  broader  upper   petals?     The   over- 
lapping of  the  edges   of  these  petals?      Of  what 
does  it  make  you  think?    (The  roof  of  a  house.) 

(c)  How  the  flower  is  held.     Can    you   see  any 
reason  why  it  is  held  so  that  it  opens  at  the  side 


144      NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

instead  of  at  the  top?    (The  rain  cannot  get  in  to 
spoil  the  nectar  and  the  pollen.) 

(d)  The  development  from  bud  to  blossom.      How 
is  the  bud  protected?     Are  these  sepals  of  any  use 
to   the   flower   after   it   blossoms?      Of   what    use? 
In  which  is  the  stem  longer,  the  full-sized  blossom 
or  the  tiny  bud  ?     Can  you  think  of  any  reason  for 
the  longer  stem  of  the  blossom  ?     (To  attract  bees, 
the   blossom  must  be  well  above  the  leaves.     The 
bud  has  nothing  to  offer  to  the  bees  and  humming 
birds.) 

(e)  The  development  from  flower  to  fruit.     Notice 
all  the  changes  in  the  flower,  —  the   drying  up  of 
the  petals  and  the  sepals  and  the  falling  of  the  same ; 
the  growth  of  the  inside  of  the  flower  —  the  ovary 
— until  it  finally  matures,  and  turns  brown.     Where 
did  you  find  the  blossom,  above  or  below  the  leaves  ? 
Where   do   you   find  the   ripened  seeds  ?     How  did 
they  get  down   there?     (The   children  will  notice 
that  the  stem  has  twisted,  in  a  curious  way,  so  as 
to  bring  the  seed  pod  under  the  leaves.)    Can  you 
think  of  any  reason  for  this?    (Perhaps  it  is  to  make 
room  for  the  flowers,  or  to  protect  the  seeds  from  the 
rain  and  the  sun  and  from  enemies  that  might  like 
to  eat  them.)    Taste  of   one  of  the  seeds  not  yet 


THE    MORNING-GLORY  145 

ripe.  What  do  you  notice?  Is  it  well  for  the  seed 
that  it  has  a  spicy  taste?  Of  what  use  is  the  seed 
to  us  other  than  giving  us  new  plants  ?  How  many 
seeds  in  one  pod?  How  are  the  seeds  scattered? 
Will  plants  come  next  year  from  these  seeds  that 
are  scattered  ?  (The  home  of  this  plant  is  in  a 
warm  country,  where  the  plants  do  not  freeze  after 
they  sprout.  They  cannot  bear  our  cold  springs,  so 
we  save  the  seeds  and  plant  them  when  the  weather 
becomes  warm.) 

(f)  The  dense  foliage.  Describe  the  leaf.  The 
stems  of  the  young  and  of  the  older  leaves.  Of  what 
use  are  the  leaves  to  the  little  buds  and  to  the  seed 
pods  ? 

NOTE.  —  This  is  not  intended  to  be  an  exhaustive  study  of 
the  nasturtium.  A  fuller  study  would  be  made  in  the  higher 
grades,  including  the  cross-fertilization  of  the  plants. 


Ill 


THE   MORNING-GLORY 

(A  SPRING  STUDY) 

Have  you  planted  any  flower  seeds  this  spring  ? 
What  ones  ?  [Among  others  quite  likely  the  morn- 
ing-glory may  be  mentioned.]  Have  you  any  morn- 


146     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

ing-glory  seeds  ?  You  may  bring  some  to  school  to 
plant,  that  we  may  have  their  pretty  leaves  and 
blossoms  in  our  windows.  [If  the  children  have 
not  the  seeds,  the  teacher  will  furnish  them.] 

On  the  following  day  a  number  of  seeds  are 
placed  in  a  dish  where  all  can  see  them  well.  No- 
tice their  colors.  Notice  their  shape.  What  gave 
them  this  queer  shape?  If  they  have  not  noticed 
the  seed  pod,  they  will  be  told  that  we  shall  find 
out  later. 

The  teacher  has  in  the  class  two  wooden  starch 
boxes,  or  other  boxes,  filled  with  rich  soil.  The  girls 
plant  seeds  in  one  box  and  the  boys  in  another. 
See  which  will  have  the  better  plants.  Each  is 
labeled.  What  do  you  expect  from  these  seeds  ? 
(Morning-glory  vines.)  What  care  must  the  seeds 
have  ?  (They  must  be  kept  warm  and  must  have 
water.)  How  much  water?  [Appoint  one  careful 
girl  to  care  for  the  girls'  box  of  seeds,  and  a  thought- 
ful boy  to  care  for  the  other  box.]  The  boxes  are 
now  set  away.  Where  shall  we  set  them  ? 

Now  each  child  is  supplied  with  a  morning-glory 
seed  and  a  pin.  Would  you  like  to  find  what  is 
inside  this  seed  ?  You  may  take  off  its  outside  coat. 
(We  cannot,  it  is  fastened  on  so  very  tightly.) 


THE    MORNING-GLORY  147 

What  shall  we  do  to  the  seeds  to  loosen  the  out- 
side coat?  (Soak  them.)  I  will  soak  them  over 
night  in  warm  water  and  see  if  that  will  loosen 
their  coats.  Is  it  well  that  their  coats  cannot  be 
easily  removed  ?  Why  ?  [On  the  following  day  the 
soaked  seeds  are  taken  to  the  class.  Each  child  is 
provided  with  one  and  with  a  pin.]  You  may  see 
now  if  you  can  remove  the  seed's  coat.  Be  very 
careful  not  to  injure  what  is  inside.  What  do  you 
find  ?  (Underneath  the  coat  is  a  layer  which  looks 
like  light-colored  jelly.)  And  what  is  inside  the  jelly? 
(Two  tiny  white  leaves,  all  crumpled  up,  and  between 
the  two,  and  protected  by  them,  is  a  little  white  stem.) 
Spread  out  the  leaves.  Why  were  they  so  crum- 
pled ?  (If  they  had  been  spread  out  as  they  are 
now  they  would  have  taken  up  much  more  room. 
They  were  packed  in  as  closely  as  possible.)  Did 
you  notice  any  jelly  in  the  dry  seed?  Scratch  a 
little  of  the  coat  off  these  dry  seeds.  (There  is  no 
jelly  here,  it  is  a  hard  substance.)  What  is  this 
hard  lining  of  the  coat  which  turns  into  jelly 
when  soaked?  What  do  you  expect  these  little 
stems  and  leaves  to  do?  (To  grow.)  And  what 
must  they  have  to  make  them  grow?  (Food.) 
Where  will  they  get  the  food?  (The  roots  will 


148      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

gather  it  for  them  from  the  ground.)  Where  are 
the  roots  of  this  little  plant?  (It  has  none,  yet.) 
What  will  feed  it  until  its  roots  grow  ?  (This  jelly 
which  is  all  around  it.)  Why  did  not  the  little  plant 
begin  to  grow  in  the  winter,  in  the  paper  in  which 
we  found  it?  (It  cannot  take  hard  food.  Its  food 
must  be  dissolved  for  it  before  it  can  take  it.)  Then 
what  must  happen  to  the  seed  before  the  tiny  plant 
can  begin  growing  ?  (It  must  be  wet.)  You  may 
make  a  picture  in  the  left-hand  corner  of  your  draw- 
ing paper  of  this  little  plant  as  it  looks  when  it  first 
comes  from  the  seed,  then  we  shall  remember  how 
the  morning-glory  began  life. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  children  planted  their 
seeds,  the  teacher  planted  a  quantity  in  a  box  by 
themselves.  As  soon  as  the  plants  in  her  box  begin 
to  break  through  the  ground,  a  few  are  taken  up  and 
changes  noticed  by  the  children.  Where  is  the 
jelly?  (The  seeds  have  used  it  up.  The  plant  has 
little  roots  now  and  they  have  gone  to  work.) 
[Drawings  are  made  at  each  stage  of  the  plant's 
development] 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  are  above  ground  they  are 
compared  in  color,  size,  and  shape  with  the  same 
when  in  the  seed.  Look  closely  between  the  two 


THE    MORNING-GLORY  149 

leaves.  What  do  you  see?  (A  little  green  dot.) 
We  will  watch  and  see  what  becomes  of  it.  [They 
will  find  later  that  this  "green  dot"  changes  into  a 
leaf.]  Only  one  ?  Is  its  shape  the  same  as  that  of 
the  two  ?  Draw  the  two  leaves  side  by  side  on  the 
board. 

But  this  was  not  all  that  the  "  little  dot "  contained, 
for  they  see  a  small  bud  pushing  right  past  the  leaf ; 
and  what  has  it?  (Another  leaf  and  a  bud.)  On 
which  side  of  the  stem  does  this  leaf  grow  ?  (On  the 
side  opposite  to  the  other.)  [Later  the  children  find 
that  the  leaves  all  grow  out  in  this  way,  —  first,  one  on 
one  side,  then  one  on  the  other.  They  admire  the 
beauty  of  the  shape  of  the  leaf  and  its  delicate  tex- 
ture. They  notice  the  veining  and  illustrate  at  the 
board.]  Why  does  it  have  these  veins  ?  (They  are 
the  troughs  through  which  the  sap  passes  to  all  parts 
of  the  leaf.  They  also  hold  the  leaf  out,  giving  it  its 
shape,  and  allowing  the  sun,  air,  and  moisture  to  reach 
all  parts  of  it.)  But  why  are  the  vines  stretching  out 
their  arms  to  us  so  pleadingly?  (They  wish  us  to 
help  them  to  stand.)  What  shall  we  do  for  them? 
(Give  them  strings  for  support.) 

[After  a  while  the  children  notice  something  grow- 
ing in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.]  What  is  it  ?  We  will 


I5O     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

watch  it  and  see.  Some  of  these  turn  out  to  be 
branches,  others  flowers. 

[The  flower  buds  are  watched  carefully  from  the 
time  they  are  big  enough  to  be  seen  until  they  open 
and  close,  and  drawings  are  made  of  them,  showing 
how  they  look  at  different  stages  of  their  growth.] 
How  long  do  they  remain  in  blossom  ?  Mark  certain 
flowers  and  find  out.  (From  morning  until  after- 
noon.) Will  this  same  blossom  open  again  to-morrow 
morning  ?  Look  and  see.  Can  you  tell  by  the  looks 
of  a  closed  flower  whether  it  has  blossomed  or  not  ? 
How  ?  Picture,  side  by  side,  a  bud  that  will  open  in 
the  morning  and  one  that  has  opened  and  closed. 
What  becomes  of  the  flower  that  is  through  blos- 
soming ?  How  long  does  its  pretty  dress  —  the  corolla 
—  remain  on  the  vine  after  it  is  through  blossoming  ? 
Watch  and  see.  Why  does  it  fall  off  ?  (It  is  of  no 
more  use.)  What  was  its  work  ? 

Let  us  look  at  this  fresh  dress.  (It  is  all  in  one 
piece,  but  you  can  see  where  five  pieces  were  put 
together  to  make  it.  The  seams  show.)  Let  us 
open  it  and  look  at  the  inside.  (The  stamens  are 
fastened  to  the  lower  part  of  this  dress.  There  are 
five  of  them,  one  on  each  piece  of  its  dress.)  And 
do  they  fall  off  with  the  dress  ?  (Yes.)  Are  they 


THE    MORNING-GLORY  15  I 

not  leaving  before  their  work  is  done?  What  is 
their  work  ?  They  bear  the  pollen  that  makes  the 
seeds  grow.  Where  are  the  seeds?  Do  the  sta- 
mens shed  their  pollen  before  falling?  Notice  the 
open  flower  and  see  if  they  do.  How  does  the  pollen 
reach  the  seeds  ?  (It  falls  on  the  stigma  and  passes 
down  the  style  to  the  seeds ;  or  the  bees  leave  pollen 
which  they  have  gathered  from  some  other  morning- 
glory  on  the  stigma,  when  they  go  into  the  flower  for 
the  nectar  which  is  at  its  base ;  or  the  wind  blowing 
carries  the  pollen  from  one  flower  to  another.)  Did 
the  sepals  fall  with  the  corolla  ?  (No,  they  stay  to 
protect  the  seed  pod.) 

The  children  watch  the  growth  of  the  seed  pod  on 
several  flowers  which  they  may  select.  They  see 
that  finally  the  style  dries  up,  only  a  small  portion  of 
it  remaining.  Is  its  work  done  ?  What  did  it  have 
to  do?  Notice  how  long  a  time  elapses  after  the 
blossom  opens  before  the  seeds  are  ripened.  What 
happens  when  they  are  ripe  ?  (Three  doors  open  into 
three  little  rooms,  in  each  of  which  dwells  snugly 
two  three-sided  seeds.  These  seeds  drop  out  when 
the  plant  is  disturbed.) 

Now  we  have  found  out  how  the  seeds  happen  to 
have  such  queer  shapes,  —  six  of  them  were  packed 


152      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

closely  in  a  little,  round,  three-roomed  house.     What 
other  shape  would  have  packed  so  well  ? 

IV 

THE   COMMON   BLUE   VIOLET 

At  the  beginning  of  the  spring  term,  or  at  the 
close  of  the  winter  term,  the  children  are  asked  to 
look  for  violets  and  see  who  will  be  first  to  find  one. 

As  soon  as  violets  become  plentiful  the  children 
are  asked  to  notice  carefully  what  kind  of  home  they 
live  in.  Is  it  moist  ground  or  dry?  Is  it  in  the 
shade  or  in  the  sun?  In  the  woods  or  out?  In 
company  with  what  other  flowers? 

Did  any  of  you  know  exactly  where  to  go  to  look 
for  violets  this  year?  How  did  you  know?  (They 
grew  there  last  year.)  Did  they  grow  all  winter? 
When  the  snow  was  off  the  ground  could  you  see 
them?  (No,  the  frost  killed  the  leaves  in  the  fall.) 
Did  it  kill  all  of  the  plant?  (No,  the  root  lived 
through  the  winter.)  How  was  it  protected  from 
the  cold?  (It  was  covered  with  soil;  above  that 
were  dead  leaves,  and  over  all  the  snow.)  Is 
snow  warm?  How  could  it  keep  the  violets  warm? 
(It  shut  out  the  cold  air  and  kept  in  the  warmth.) 


THE    COMMON    BLUE    VIOLET  153 

Did  you  look  for  violets  at  all  before  they  came, 
this  year?  Were  there  any  promises  of  violets? 
(The  leaves.)  Can  you  think  of  any  reason  why 
the  leaves  should  come  first?  (They  make  a  pretty 
home  for  the  flower.  They  stand  around  it  like 
little  soldiers,  ready  to  protect  it.)  But  that  is  not 
all.  The  leaves  are  the  plants'  kitchens,  in  which 
all  the  food  is  prepared  for  the  flowers  and  the 
whole  plant  as  well.  The  little  flowers  must  have 
food  or  they  could  not  grow,  so  the  leaves  come 
first  and  get  the  food  ready  for  them.  Can  you* 
see  the  work  going  on  in  the  leaves?  (No,  the 
preparation  of  the  food  is  made  in  a  very  quiet 
and  orderly  manner.) 

Where  does  the  food  which  is  prepared  in  the 
leaves  come  from?  (The  roots  get  it  from  the 
ground.)  Have  you  ever  noticed  the  roots  of 
the  violet?  I  have  a  plant  here  with  its  roots 
washed  so  that  you  can  see  them  plainly.  Which 
are  the  working  roots?  (The  very  small  ones.) 
What  must  these  roots  have  through  which  to  take 
their  food?  (Mouths.)  Where  are  their  mouths? 
(All  over  the  tiny  roots.)  Can  you  see  them  ?  (No.) 
What  kind  of  food  can  be  taken  through  such  little 
mouths  ?  (Water.)  If  you  put  a  little  salt  or  soda 


154     NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

into  water,  what  becomes  of  it  ?  (It  dissolves  so  we 
cannot  see  it.)  Could  the  plant  take  anything  but 
water  through  its  tiny  root  mouths  ?  (It  could  take 
other  things  if  they  were  dissolved  in  water.)  It 
does  this.  We  do  not  know  all  of  the  things  that 
it  takes  in  this  way. 

How  does  this  food  reach  the  leaves?  (It  first 
passes  along  to  "the  large  root,"  then  up  the  stem 
to  the  stalks  of  the  leaves,  on  through  the  large 
veins  in  the  leaves  into  the  smaller  ones,  and  so  on 
to  all  parts  of  the  leaf,  where  it  is  prepared  as  food 
and  then  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  plant  to  feed  it.) 

What  furnishes  the  heat  for  preparing  the  food? 
(The  sun.)  Yes,  the  food  cannot  be  made  ready 
unless  the  sun  helps,  and  so  when  the  sun  goes 
down  the  work  in  the  leaves  ceases.  You  have 
noticed  that  when  your  mother  is  cooking,  steam 
arises  from  the  kettles  or  saucepans.  Does  steam 
arise  from  this  food  as  it  is  being  prepared?  You 
may  place  several  fresh  violet  leaves  under  this 
glass,  look  at  the  glass  occasionally,  and  tell  us  to- 
morrow what  you  noticed.  On  the  inside  of  the 
glass  will  be  moisture.  From  what  did  this  come  ? 
Can  you  see  the  holes  through  which  it  came  ? 
(No,  they  are  too  small  to  be  seen.)  Through  these 


THE   COMMON    BLUE   VIOLET 

tiny  holes  air  goes  into  the  leaf  and  mixes  with 
the  food  from  the  roots  before  that  is  fit  for  the 
plant  to  eat.  When  the  food  is  all  ready  what 
becomes  of  it?  (Some  of  it  goes  to  all  parts  of 
the  leaf,  some  to  the  roots,  and  some  to  the  pretty 
blue  blossoms.) 

You  said  that  there  were  no  leaves  in  the  winter, 
When  did  these  leaves  come  ?  How  could  they  grow 
when  there  were  no  leaves  in  which  to  prepare  the 
food  for  them?  (Last  autumn,  before  Jack  Frost 
killed  the  working  leaves,  this  "  large  root,"  as  you 
call  it,  packed  up  enough  prepared  food  to  feed  the 
roots  and  leaves  this  spring,  until  they  got  well 
started  at  their  work  and  could  feed  themselves.) 

Let  us  look  at  this  trunk  in  which  the  food  was 
packed  last  autumn.  Why  do  you  call  it  a  root  ?  (It 
looks  like  one.  It  grows  underground.)  What  do 
we  find  growing  from  it  here?  (Leaves.)  [The 
teacher  should  have  a  number  of  different  plants 
in  the  class.]  From  what  do  the  leaves  on  this 
plant  grow  ?  (A  stem.)  On  this  ?  (A  stem.)  What 
do  we  call  this  part  from  which  the  leaves  and 
flowers  grow  ?  (A  stem.)  What  shall  we  call  this, 
then,  from  which  the  violet's  leaves  and  flowers 
grow  (pointing  to  the  root-stock)  ?  (A  stem.)  Since 


156      NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

it  grows  under  the  ground  what  name  might  we  give 
it  ?  (An  underground  stem.) 

How  did  the  little  leaves  look  when  they  started 
up  from  this  stem  to  get  a  peep  into  the  great  world, 
where  they  were  to  make  ready  a  home  for  the 
flowers  ?  Here  are  some  on  this  plant  which  I  took 
up.  (The  stalk  sticks  its  back  up  through  the  ground 
first,  as  if  to  make  way  for  the  little  leaf  blade.  Then 
it  comes  through  with  the  blade  bent  over  so  as  to 
He  close  to  the  upper  part  of  the  stalk.)  Look 
closely  at  the  little  leaves.  (They  are  rolled  tightly 
from  both  edges  toward  the  midrib  so  as  to  get 
through  the  ground  without  being  torn  or  broken.) 
And  does  it  unroll  suddenly?  Notice  the  bases  of 
the  half-grown  leaves. 

What  shape  is  the  leaf  ?  Draw  it  on  the  board. 
Does  the  shape  of  the  leaf  help  it  any  after  it  is 
grown  ?  [Sprinkle  some  water  on  a  leaf  of  a  grow- 
ing plant.  It  is  well  to  have  some  growing  in  boxes 
in  the  house.]  What  do  you  see?  (The  water 
gathers  in  the  center  of  the  leaf  and  runs  down  the 
little  trough  in  its  stalk.)  Is  that  well  or  not?  (It 
carries  the  water  directly  to  the  roots,  where  it  is 
needed.)  What  does  the  water  do?  (Dissolves 
solid  food  which  it  finds  in  the  earth,  then  is  taken 


THE    COMMON    BLUE    VIOLET  1 57 

in  by  the  little  roots,  goes  to  the  leaf,  and  is  mixed 
with  air  and  moisture  coming  through  the  tiny  holes 
in  the  leaves.) 

And  while  the  roots  are  working  away  and  the 
leaves  are  so  busy,  what  is  the  little  flower  doing? 
(Growing.)  How  does  it  look  when  you  first  see  it 
above  ground?  Picture  on  the  board.  What  changes 
do  you  notice  as  it  grows  older  ?  (The  stem  lengthens, 
lifting  the  bud  higher  and  higher  into  the  air  and 
sunlight.  The  bud  grows  fuller  and  longer.  At 
last  the  green  blanket  that  covers  little  Violet  is 
pushed  aside,  and  we  see  her  blue  dress.)  Notice 
how  her  dress  was  folded  while  she  was  wrapped 
in  the  blanket.  Did  it  get  wrinkled?  Do  you 
think  you  could  fold  a  dress  and  pack  it  so  tightly 
and  have  it  come  out  without  a  wrinkle  ?  What 
becomes  of  the  green  blanket?  Can  you  see  it  on 
your  flowers?  It  still  protects  Violet.  Her  dress 
is  very  delicate. 

Do  all  violets  wear  dresses  of  the  same  tint  of 
blue  ?  (Some  are  dark  and  some  are  light.)  Do  they 
ever  wear  any  other  color?  (Some  violets  are  white, 
some  are  yellow,  and  some  are  purple.)  Is  the  dress 
in  one  piece?  What  are  the  pieces  called?  (Petals.) 
Are  they  all  of  the  same  ske.  and  shape?  (The 


158     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES 

lowest  petal  is  a  little  larger  than  the  others,  and  it 
has  a  little  pocket  behind.)  Let  us  see  if  we  can 
find  anything  in  this  pocket.  [This  can  better  be 
shown  with  a  large  pansy.]  We  will  cut  the  pocket 
off.  Now  pinch  it.  Taste.  What  do  you  find  ? 
(Honey.)  We  will  call  it  nectar.  Why  is  the  nectar 
there?  What  would  like  it?  (Bees  and  other 
insects.)  Have  you  ever  seen  any  insects  about  the 
violets?  Watch  closely  and  tell  all  that  the  bees 
or  other  insects  do.  Later  the  children  will  very 
likely  have  discovered  that  the  bee  alights  on  the 
lower  petal,  then  thrusts  in  his  "  long  mouth  "  — 
proboscis  —  and  drinks  in  the  nectar.  Notice  care- 
fully the  path  which  the  proboscis  of  the  bee  takes 
in  going  to  the  nectar.  There  seems  to  be  a  path 
on  purpose  for  it  right  through  the  middle  of  the 
lower  petal,  and  there  is  a  hedge  along  both  sides  of 
this  road.  What  is  this  hedge?  (A  thick  beard  of 
short  hairs  running  down  the  two  petals  on  each 
side  of  the  flower.)  Take  this  fine  stalk  of  grass 
and  let  it  follow  the  road  which  the  proboscis  of  the 
bee  follows.  Then  look  closely  at  the  grass  and 
tell  what  you  see.  (There  is  pollen  on  it.)  Where 
did  it  come  from?  What  is  it  good  for?  (To  feed 
the  tiny  seeds  so  they  will  grow.)  Let  us  look 


THE    COMMON    BLUE    VIOLET  159 

closely  at  the  home  of  these  seeds.  Where  shall 
we  find  them  ?  [Each  child  has  a  flower  and  finds 
the  pistil.]  Where  are  the  little  seeds?  How  is 
the  pollen  to  reach  them?  (It  must  fall  on  the 
sticky  top  of  the  pistil  and  pass  down  through 
that  tube  to  the  seeds.)  The  sticky  top  is  the 
stigma  and  the  tube  is  the  style. 

Watch  one  clump  of  violets  at  or  near  your  home 
this  spring.  Look  for  seed  pods.  Here  are  some 
which  I  gathered  last  summer.  Let  us  see  who 
will  be  the  first  to  find  one  on  his  clump. 

Look  far  down  among  the  violet  leaves  for  some- 
thing that  grows  up  from  the  underground  stem  about 
which  we  have  not  spoken.  Tell  about  it  to-morrow. 
[The  next  day  the  children  are  questioned  in 
regard  to  their  discoveries.  They  will  tell  of 
queer  little  three-sided  buds,  of  roundish,  hard  balls, 
something  that  looked  like  the  flowers  but  had  no 
petals,  etc.  The  teacher  should  have  some  of  these 
apetalous  flowers  in  the  class  room,  showing  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  development.  It  will  be  easy 
to  find  other  seed  pods  also.]  What  are  these  ? 
(Queer  little  flowers  with  no  petals.)  Why  do  they 
not  come  up  where  we  can  see  them  ?  (They 
have  no  pretty  petals  to  show.)  Have  they  borne 


I6O     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

seeds  down  here  in  the  shade?  (Some  of  them 
have.) 

Here  is  something  still  stranger  about  these  queer 
flowers.  [The  teacher  has  a  plant  in  the  class  with 
soil  on  its  roots.]  Look  as  I  open  the  soil.  (There 
are  some  of  those  queer  flowers  below  the  ground, 
and  some  have  gone  to  seed  here  without  ever  seeing 
the  light.) 

When  the  violet  pod  is  ripe,  what  happens  ?  (It 
divides  into  three  parts  and  opens.)  How  are  the 
seeds  scattered  ?  What  becomes  of  them  ?  We  will 
plant  some  in  this  box  and  see  if  they  will  grow 
for  us.  Mamie  may  care  for  the  box  this  week. 

If  the  underground  roots  were  all  to  die,  might 
we  still  have  violets  ?  How  ? 

[Review  the  life  of  the  violet  later,  starting  with 
the  seed.] 

V 

THE  WILD   ROSE 

The  wild  rose  is  in  full  bloom  in  June,  before  our 
schools  are  closed,  and  is  a  very  simple  flower  for 
study.  The  following  are  some  of  the  points  in 
which  the  children  will  be  interested:  — 


THE    WILD    ROSE  l6l 

It  presents  no  loud  color,  but  passes  from  pure 
white,  which  is  somewhat  rare,  to  intense  pink, 
through  all  the  intermediate  tints.  Not  unfrequently 
we  find  in  a  single  flower  exquisite  markings  and 
shadings.  Its  fragrance,  too,  is  as  delightful  as  its 
coloring. 

When  the  sun  is  shining  the  mature  rose  spreads 
wide  its  petals,  catching  every  ray  which  comes  its 
way,  but  when  darkness  reigns  it  closes,  and  says  to 
the  world,  "Good  night."  Does  it  close,  also,  before 
and  during  a  storm?  Watch  and  see.  The  closed 
flower  is  as  beautiful  as  the  open  one.  When  you 
have  seen  one  you  have  not  seen  all,  for  there  are 
many  different  arrangements  of  the  petals  in  closing, 
but  in  each  the  adaptation  is  so  perfect  that  one 
wonders  that  any  other  plan  could  have  answered  so 
well.  Why  should  the  rose  close  at  night  ?  If  we 
notice  the  texture  of  one  of  the  petals  we  find  its 
two  sides  quite  unlike.  The  soft,  velvety  upper  side 
might  easily  be  marred  by  the  dew,  while  the  coarser 
under  side  seems  better  fitted  to  cope  with  it.  This 
suggests  what  may  be  one  reason  for  closing.  Later 
we  may  find  a  better  one. 

Any  child  can  find  out  how  long  the  petals  remain 
after  the  flower  opens  by  watching  carefully  the 


l62     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS   FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

unfolding  of  certain  buds  which  he  has  marked,  but 
he  must  bear  in  mind  that  storms  of  wind  or  rain 
often  cut  the  tender  lives  short. 

Although  each  petal  usually  performs  its  part  in 
closing,  occasionally  we  find  one,  like  a  willful  child, 
standing  off  by  itself,  rolled  up  to  resemble  a  bud. 
Sometimes,  too,  one  little  petal  will  creep  out  of  the 
bud  many  hours  before  the  others  are  ready.  It 
looks  too  dismal  to  be  enjoying  its  joke. 

If  there  is  room  in  the  schoolhouse  yard,  wild 
roses  might  be  planted  there.  Here  the  children  will 
discover  many  interesting  facts  about  their  appearance 
and  growth. 

About  the  time  that  the  petals  fall,  the  stamens 
change  their  bright  color  for  a  dark  brown,  and 
later  this  color  gives  place  to  black.  Their  work 
is  done,  although  they  do  not  pass  out  of  sight. 
The  only  part  of  the  rose  now  especially  notice- 
able is  the  green  seed  cup  with  the  sepals  fastened 
to  its  rim,  and  falling  back  over  its  sides.  We 
had  noticed  this  cup  but  little  when  the  petals 
stood  about  and  above  it,  but  it  has  been  growing 
quite  rapidly  all  of  the  time.  Why  should  this 
cup  remain  while  the  petals  fall  and  the  stamens 
fade?  There  is  not  much  more  beauty  to  it  than 


THE   WILD    ROSE  163 

to  a  little  green  apple,  which  it  much  resembles. 
We  will  open  one  of  these  cups  —  a  large  one. 
Inside  we  find  a  number  of  shining  yellow  seeds. 
They  form  a  circle  around  the  inside  of  the  cup. 
All  are  closely  packed  together.  The  outer  seeds 
are  rounded  on  the  outside.  There  is  no  definite 
number  of  sides  to  each  seed,  they  differ  consid- 
erably in  shape,  and  we  find,  too,  some  seeds  that 
seem  to  be  dried  up.  Why  is  this?  We  will  go 
back  a  little.  The  children  have  noticed  that  when 
they  touched  the  stamens,  pollen  covered  the  tip  of 
the  finger.  The  little  pollen  sacks  have  burst  and 
the  pollen  is  free.  Much  of  it  falls  on  the  little 
green  cushion  in  the  center  of  the  flower.  By 
opening  one  of  the  smaller  cups  it  will  be  seen 
that  this  cushion  is  the  feathery  top  of  many 
small  styles  which  reach  down  to  the  seeds.  The 
pollen  touches  a  little  seed  and  says,  "Wake  up 
and  grow,"  and  the  seed  obeys.  The  ovules  that 
did  not  develop  into  seeds  failed  to  receive  the 
message,  so  they  did  not  grow.  The  petals  need 
to  guard  the  pollen  that  its  seed  children  may 
thrive.  How  does  the  closing  of  the  rose  at  night 
help?  Why  is  it  well  that  the  petals  are  so  deli- 
cate on  the  upper  side? 


164     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

How  long  a  time  the  seeds  grow  before  ripening 
can  be  learned  by  the  children  by  recording  the 
time  of  the  falling  of  the  petals  on  a  few  marked 
roses. 

As  the  seeds  grow  the  little  cup  which  holds 
them  grows.  At  last,  when  they  are  ripened,  the 
cup  proclaims  it  to  the  world  by  its  changed 
color,  now  a  bright  red.  But  this  is  a  covered 
cup.  How  are  the  seeds  to  get  out  into  the 
world?  Has  the  plant  been  working  so  hard  for 
nothing?  "That  red  cup  looks  very  attractive,"  says 
birdie,  and  down  it  pounces  upon  it,  breaking  the 
cup  and  scattering  some  of  the  seeds,  while  it  eats 
greedily  from  the  broken  cup.  So  the  rose  feeds 
the  birds  and  the  birds  free  the  seeds.  Nature's 
children  are  everywhere  helping  one  another. 

VI 

TREE   BUDS 
(A  SPRING  STUDY) 

There  are  wonderful  discoveries  to  be  made  by 
watching  the  development  of  the  tree  buds  in  the 
spring. 

Sometimes  twigs  are  put  into  glasses  in  the  school- 
room early  in  the  season,  before  the  buds  begin  to 


TREE    BUDS  165 

swell.  They  can  be  watched  here  by  the  young 
children  much  more  advantageously  than  out  of 
doors,  as  oftentimes  the  branches  of  the  trees  are 
so  high  that  the  children  cannot  see  the  buds  well. 
It  is  best  to  take  but  few  twigs  at  a  time. 

Watching  the  sycamore  twigs,  a  little  green  ball 
appears  upon  one  of  the  side  shoots.  We  are  sure 
it  must  be  a  seed  ball.  It  has  a  white  stem  about 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  long.  On  each  of  two 
opposite  sides  of  the  ball  is  a  leaf,  growing  from 
its  base.  Between  the  ball  and  each  of  these  larger 
leaves  is  a  tiny  leaf,  making  four  in  all.  The  ball 
grows  quite  rapidly,  then  becomes  fluffy.  It  turns 
gray  —  what  can  this  mean?  Now  showers  of  pol- 
len are  falling  from  it  every  time  it  is  disturbed. 
Are  there  not  seeds,  too?  (No,  the  stamens  drop 
off,  leaving  a  white,  woolly  ball.  It  turns  brown, 
dies,  and  falls.) 

Now  a  ball  resembling  the  one  previously  de- 
scribed grows  from  a  terminal  bud.  It  has  a  light 
green  stem  over  an  inch  long.  It  is  surrounded  by 
leaves  as  was  the  other  ball.  It  grows  and  grows, 
but  sheds  no  pollen.  It  is  the  true  seed  ball. 

The  staminate  and  pistillate  blossoms  of  the 
balm  of  Gilead  tree  grow  on  separate  trees.  We 


1 66     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

have  twigs  from  both  trees.  The  staminate  blos- 
soms come  out  dark  red,  dotted  with  white. 
Further  observation  shows  us  that  these  "white 
dots "  are  scales  which  separate  the  blossoms. 
They  are  packed  as  carefully  as  if  they  were  deli- 
cate china.  These  scales  fall  out  as  soon  as  the 
blossoms  expand.  When  the  anthers  burst,  the 
flowers  turn  yellow,  then  a  dirty  brown.  At  last 
they  fall.  The  seed  catkins  are  green,  and  are 
sometimes  over  eight  inches  long.  Their  maturing 
can  be  followed  on  the  trees. 

What  do  the  buds  of  the  plum  trees  contain? 
(Three  or  four  flower  buds  each.)  Naturally  we 
look  to  the  cherry  tree,  expecting  to  find  the  same 
thing  true  of  its  buds,  but  here  we  find  clusters  of 
little  green  knobs.  The  central  bud  develops  into 
a  twig,  the  others  into  blossoms.  Which  one  is  the 
apple  bud  like?  When  its  brown  bud  opens  it  dis- 
closes a  gray  velvet  hood,  which  contains  a  set  of 
five  or  six  flower  buds  surrounded  by  six  or  seven 
leaves.  It  is  quite  different  from  the  others. 

The  opening  linden  buds  make  one  think  of  a 
child's  face  with  its  sunbonnet  pushed  back.  The 
buds  are  separated  by  a  long  space  —  sometimes 
three  inches. 


AUTUMN    LEAVES   AND    BUDS  167 

The  catalpa  buds  come  out  from  under  the  bark  of 
the  twig  where  they  have  been  protected  all  winter. 
There  are  four  buds  in  a  circle.  What  queer  leaf 
scars  on  the  twigs ! 

The  twigs  of  all  the  trees  are  interesting.  Each 
variety  has  a  different  method  of  putting  forth  its 
blossoms  and  twigs,  and  there  are  constant  surprises 
for  the  children.  The  few  examples  given  above  are 
no  more  interesting  than  hundreds  of  others.  There 
is  not  a  prosy  one  among  them. 

VII 

AUTUMN  LEAVES  AND  BUDS 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  begin  to  fall,  encourage 
the  children  to  bring  beautiful  ones  to  school,  the 
teacher  pressing  some  of  them  for  the  decoration 
of  the  schoolroom.  Ask  the  children  to  name 
the  trees  from  which  the  leaves  come.  Notice 
what  tree  first  puts  on  gay  colors,  and  have  the 
children  note  the  succession.  What  tree  is  soonest 
bare  ?  What  one  retains  its  leaves  longest  of  all  ? 
Notice  the  movement  of  the  leaves  in  falling.  Listen 
to  the  sounds  which  they  make. 

The    trees    that    wear    yellow    dresses    may    be 


168      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

grouped  together,  also  those  that  wear  dresses  of 
red,  bronze,  brown,  red  and  yellow,  etc.  Do  all 
trees  that  send  off  their  leaves  dress  them  beauti- 
fully before  they  go  ?  What  trees  have  leaves  that 
shrivel  up  when  the  frosts  come  ? 

You  have  had  a  story  about  a  little  leaf  that  worried 
a  great  deal  ["  The  Anxious  Leaf,"  by  Henry  Ward 
:  About  what  did  it  worry  ?  (!Fpr  fear  the 
off  and  throw  it  down  on  the  ground 
to  die.)  Is  the  wind  doing  that  with  any  leaves 
now  ?  Do  they  fall  easily  ?  Could  the  wind  always 
pull  the  leaves  off  so  eafify?  (No,  not  in  the  spring 
and  summer.)  You  may  shake  the  little  branch  that 

O  T  7  T  fr       f~f  fjr  f\        r~rt~l  T  T  A  T    Y       r  r  irrt  •^>-r  T  ft 

£vJ.Uti    vJ/L/A  .  oJ.  V  Ad.J     rLMUJ   -j/- 
I  brought  in.     (The  leaves   come    fluttering    down.) 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out  why  the  leaves  fall 
sd;e£sil$?:*iow.  Why  is  it,  do  you  think?  ("They 
£afge&>:>$6  ba»gi<on^bfi<f  They  are  loose."q  "i$Q*n£- 
thing  is  grcwjivg,  up  ;  between  the  leaf  and  the 
branch,  and  the  leaf  can't  reach  around  it.") 
JJook  clbsfely  at  that  something,  What  is  it?  (A 
tinyo&udf)  -cWiE^it'/all  off  ?  Why  *Jo.  you  think  it 
will  hoti--;^Itih«rldsoonb  so  tighttys)IO  Btef'^bu  <  think 


clasped  it  and  kept  iti  warm,  i  ra^ad  ,  fdry^  a-nd  QUt 
the  >sight  <of-hi!igs-//wfh-ieh  might  eat  auch  a 


AUTUMN  LEAVES  AND  BUDS         169 

thing.)  It  is  true  that  the  buds  need  the  leaves 
when  they  are  so  tiny,  but  they  do  not  push  the 
leaves  off.  Notice  carefully  these  leaves  on  the 
branch.  Here  is  a  little  fence  which  has  been 
slowly  built  up  between  the  leaf  and  the  branch. 
When  the  fence  is  done,  the  leaf  drops.  But  this 
fence  is  never  built  up  too  fast.  The  leaves,  all 
through  the  summer,  are  working  away,  for  they 
prepare  all  the  food  which  the  tree  needs.  When 
the  little  fence  is  begun,  the  tree  ceases  to  need  much 
food  and  so  stops  growing.  Instead  of  using  now  the 
food  prepared  by  the  leaves,  it  packs  it  away  in  its 
trunk  and  branches,  for  it  will  need  it  in  the  spring ; 
and  when  the  leaves  have  furnished  the  tree  all  the 
food  it  needs,  their  work  is  done,  and  they  are  ready 
to  go,  and  just  at  that  time  the  fence  is  finished. 

Of  what  use  are  the  leaves  after  they  fall  ?  (They 
cover  the  roots  of  the  plants  and  protect  them  from 
the  cold.  The  snows  and  rains  cause  them  to  decay.) 
Of  what  use  are  the  decayed  leaves?  Bring  leaf 
mold  to  the  class  —  coarse  and  fine.  How  is  it 
made  ?  Of  what  use  ? 

[This  is  probably  as  deep  as  we  shall  care  to  go 
into  the  subject  with  little  children  who  have  just 
entered  school.] 


I/O     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

You  have  spoken  of  the  leaf  caring  for  the  bud. 
Why  should  it  care  for  it  so  tenderly  ?  Of  what  use 
is  a  bud  ?  Let  us  see  what  is  in  this  little  cotton- 
wood  bud.  (The  outside  is  sticky.)  Why  is  that  ? 
(To  protect  it  from  the  rain  and  snow  and  to  keep 
bugs  from  eating  it.)  We  will  take  off  this  water- 
proof coat  very  carefully.  What  do  you  see  here  ? 
What  do  these  coats  do  ?  (There  must  be  something 
very  valuable  inside  which  these  coats  are  keeping 
safe.)  And  inside  these  soft  wrappings  what  do 
we  find?  (Some  tiny  leaves  —  a  little  twig.) 
What  are  they  doing  here  ?  (They  are  lying  in 
their  warm  bed,  cuddled  closely  together,  waiting 
for  spring.  When  the  weather  begins  to  get  warm 
in  the  spring,  the  wax  on  the  outside  will  melt  and 
the  buds  will  swell  so  that  their  covers  become  too 
small,  then  they  burst  open  and  finally  fall.)  Why 
do  the  buds  not  open  now?  (They  would  freeze 
in  the  winter,  so  the  tree  gives  them  very  little 
food  —  just  enough  to  keep  them  alive,  but  not 
enough  to  make  them  grow.) 

Open  other  buds ;  some  will  be  found  to  contain 
flowers.  Notice  the  difference  in  the  shapes  of  the 
twig  buds  and  flower  buds.  [The  flower  buds  on 
many  trees  are  short  and  round,  while  the  twig 


AUTUMN    LEAVES   AND    BUDS  IJl 

buds  are  long  and  pointed.]  By  noticing  the  open- 
ing of  the  buds  in  the  spring  these  same  facts  can 
be  learned  without  destroying  the  buds. 

Was  it  not  too  bad  for  the  leaf  to  leave  the 
little  bud  ?  (No ;  the  bud  does  not  need  it  longer, 
it  is  covered  up  so  well.  The  leaf  stayed  with  it 
until  it  had  on  all  its  covers,  so  the  little  buds  do 
not  need  the  leaves,  and  the  tree  does  not  need 
them  to  prepare  its  food.)  But  would  it  do  any 
harm  for  them  to  stay  ?  (Yes,  the  snow  might 
gather  on  the  leaves  and  break  the  branches  with 
its  weight.) 

Do  you  think  you  would  find  buds  on  all  these 
trees  that  are  losing  their  leaves?  Look  and  see, 
and  find  if  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  different 
trees  are  wrapped  up  in  the  same  way  that  those 
on  the  cottonwood  are  wrapped. 

It  is  advisable  when  beginning  the  study  of  buds  to 
center  observation  chiefly  upon  two  or  three  kinds  of 
trees,  as  hickory  and  cottonwood. 

DEVICES   IN   IDENTIFYING   LEAVES 

I.  Have  a  package  of  leaves  of  several  different 
varieties  for  each  child.  Give  the  name  of  a  leaf 
and  have  each  child  show  a  leaf  of  that  name. 


1/2   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

2.  Have  a   number  of  leaves  on  the  table.     Call 
rapidly  on  the  children,  one  at  a  time,  to  select  the 
different  leaves  you  name. 

3.  A  child  names  a  leaf,  calling  on  another  child 
to  select  it ;  the  school  approve  the  choice  by  saying, 
e.g.,   "Yes,   Earl,"    or   "No,    Mary."      If   the   child 
called  upon  selects  the  correct  leaf,  he  names  a  leaf 
for  another  to  select,  and  so  on. 

4.  A  child  stands  before  the  class  with  a  package 
of  leaves ;  holding  up  a  leaf,  he  says,  e.g.,  "  This  is  a 
sugar  maple  leaf,"  etc.,  until  he  names  one  incorrectly. 
The  first  child  who  detects  the  mistake  takes  his  place 
and  names  leaves  until  he  misses  one,  and  so  on. 

5.  The  children  are  each  supplied  with  several  vari- 
eties of  leaves.     They  examine  closely  and  describe. 
They  name  the  characteristics,  e.g.,  of  the  elm,  the 
scarlet  oak,  the  linden. 

6.  (a)  The  teacher  describes  a  leaf;  the  children 
name   it   from    her    description.      (b)  A   child   de- 
scribes; the  others  name. 

7.  All  the  pupils  close  their  eyes.     Each  is  pro- 
vided with  a  leaf,  which  he  names  by  feeling  it. 

8.  A  child  makes  a  drawing  of  a  leaf  at  the  board. 
The    children    name    from    the    drawing.      These 
sketches  are  put  on  the  board  rapidly. 


AUTUMN    LEAVES   AND    BUDS  1/3 

9.  A  child  draws,  for  example,  an  oak  leaf;  the 
children  criticise  the  drawing. 

10.  Beautiful  autumn  leaves  are  mounted  on  pan- 
els.    These  panels   are   strung   together   and   hung 
upon   the  walls   at  the  top  of   the  blackboards.     A 
pupil  points  to  the  leaves  and  names  rapidly. 

1 1 .  Leaves  of  various  trees  are  given  to  the  chil- 
dren.    Seeds  of  these  same  trees  are  also  given  to 
them.     The   children   arrange   the   leaves   on   their 
desks   and  place  upon  each  leaf  the  corresponding 
seed. 

12.  Cut  slips  of  cardboard  five  by  ten  inches.    Upon 
each  slip  print,  or  write  with  a  brush,  the  name  of  a 
tree.     Scatter  these   slips   about   the   room,  placing 
them  on  the  ledge  of  the  blackboard. 

Upon  the  table  place  leaves  of  the  trees  named 
upon  the  cards. 

A  child  is  asked  to  pick  out  a  leaf  and  place  it  by 

its  name.  The  class  say,  "Yes,  "(calling  the 

name  of  the  child),  if  the  leaf  is  correctly  placed,  or 

«  NO) ,"  if  the  leaf  is  placed  by  the  wrong  slip. 

See  which  one  can  match  correctly  the  largest  num- 
ber of  leaves  and  cards. 

To  vary  the  exercise,  slips  may  be  chosen  to 
match  the  leaves. 


NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

[This  may  be  used  for  bird  identification  by  sub- 
stituting mounted  specimens  or  colored  pictures  of 
birds  for  leaves,  and  using  the  names  of  birds  on  the 
slips.] 

LEAF  GAME  No.  i 

The  children  play  leaf  games,  e.g.  the  following, 
suggested  by  Lula  Ward :  — 

"  Oak,  elm,  and  walnut,  standing  in  a  row, 
Standing  there  so  straight  and  tall, 

With  leaves  all  showing  so. 
Now  one  away  is  skipping,  as  fast  as  she  can  go. 
Name  her  quickly,  Florence,  and  you'll  be  in  the  row." 

Explanation :  — 

Each  child  in  the  class  has  a  leaf  pinned  upon  his 
breast.  Three  pupils  are  called  to  stand  out  in  front 
of  the  class ;  the  names  of  the  leaves  which  they 
wear  are  substituted  for  the  names  given  in  the  first 
line  of  the  little  rhyme.  As  the  fourth  line  is 
sung,  one  of  the  three  children  skips  away.  If 
the  child  whose  name  is  called  in  the  last  line  can 
give  the  name  of  the  leaf  which  the  former  child 
wears,  he  takes  his  place  in  the  row  in  front  of  the 
class.  (He  wears  a  leaf  of  some  other  tree.) 

The  little  rhyme  is  sung  by  all  the  children  ex- 
cept the  three  in  the  row. 


AUTUMN    LEAVES    AND    BUDS  175 

LEAF  GAMES   Nos.  2,  3,  AND  4 

In  "  For  Grace  and  Pleasure "  are  three  games 
which  may  be  used  in  connection  with  the  identi- 
fication of  leaves;  see  "Leaves  in  the  Wind,"  p.  7, 
"The  Barberry"  (or  other  plant),  p.  28.  Substitute 
the  name  of  the  tree  from  which  a  leaf  came,  e.g. 
maple  tree,  in  place  of  "  September  leaves,"  p.  7. 

LEAF  GAME  No.  5 

Each  child  has  the  leaf  of  a  tree  pinned  upon  his 
waist.  The  children  form  a  circle  and  sing  this  song 
as  they  move  about  in  the  ring :  — 

"  Here  we  go  round  the tree,  the tree,  the tree ;, 

Here  we  go  round  the tree, 

So  early  in  the  morning." 

(Sing  to  the  tune  of  "  Here  we  go  round  the  mulberry  bush.") 

As  soon  as  the  name  of  the  tree  is  sung,  the  child 
who  wears  a  leaf  from  that  tree  steps  quickly  into  the 
ring.  If  he  fails  to  respond,  through  inattention  or 
lack  of  identification  of  the  tree  by  its  leaf,  he  steps 
out  of  the  ring.  If  he  recognizes  his  leaf  name  when 
called  later,  he  dodges  into  the  center  of  the  ring  and 
is  again  in  the  game. 


1/6     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

LEAF   GAME   No.  6 

A  leaf  is  pinned  upon  each  child's  waist  as  in  the 
previous  game.  The  children  sing :  — 

"  Fly  away,  fly  away, 

Dear  little leaf,  fly  away ; 

Over  the  brown  fields  dance  and  play, 
But  come  back  to  see  us  again  to-day. 

Come  back, leaf. 

Come  back, leaf." 

(Tune,  "Milkweed  Babies,"  Primary  Education,  October,  1902.) 

—  ELEANOR  TROXELL. 

As  soon  as  the  name  of  a  leaf  is  sung,  the  child 
who  wears  that  leaf  flies  about  the  room.  The  chil- 
dren at  their  seats  sing  "  Come  back,"  etc.,  beckoning 
at  the  same  time  to  the  "  little  leaf  "  flying  about. 

VIII 

A   NUT  GAME 

Different  kinds  of  nuts  are  scattered  about  the 
room.  One  of  the  children  who  knows  the  names 
of  all  the  nuts  is  the  mother  squirre.1.  The  other 
children  are  the  little  squirrels.  The  mother  sends 
one  little  squirrel  out  to  find  walnuts,  another  to  find 
beechnuts,  another  to  find  hickory  nuts,  etc.  If  one 
brings  back  the  wrong  nut,  he  must  return  it  to  the 


THE    APPLE 

place  where  he  found  it,  and  another  little  squirrel  is 
then  sent  with  him  to  find  the  nut  which  he  was 
asked  to  find.  See  how  many  can  find  all  the  nuts 
called  for,  without  making  a  mistake  or  having  to  be 

helped. 

A  RIDDLE 

As  soft  as  silk,  as  white  as  milk, 
As  bitter  as  gall,  a  thick  wall, 

And  a  green  coat  covers  me  all. 

(A  Walnut.) 
—  "Mother  Goose  Melodies." 

IX 

THE  APPLE 

(A  WINTER  STUDY) 

How  many  like  apples  ?  What  kind  do  you  like 
best  ?  (The  child  does  not  need  to  name  the  variety, 
Although  if  he  knows  its  name  it  would  be  well  to 
give  it.  The  children's  answers  will  reveal  the  fact 
that'  stoine  like  sweet  apples ;  others,  sour  apples, 
jttioy  apples,  mealy  apples,  apples  that  have  a  spicy 
tarittefc  etci  VNearly  every  taste  can  be  suited  in  apples, 
therefore  many  people  eat  them.) 

whole  apple  ?     What  part  do  you 
(The   skin,  perhaps,   and   the   core.) 

N 


1/8   NATURE  STUDY  LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Many  people,  however,  eat  the  skin.  Did  you  ever 
eat  a  core  ?  How  do  you  like  it  ?  What  trouble  does 
eating  a  core  sometimes  give  you  ?  (The  scales  of 
the  cells  stick  in  the  throat.)  What  is  the  use  of 
these  scales  ?  Let  us  examine  these  apple  cores. 
(The  scales  make  rooms  for  the  seeds.)  How  many 
scales  does  it  take  to  make  one  room  ?  How  are  the 
scales  fitted  together  ?  How  many  seeds  inside  a 
room?  (The  children  will  find  that  the  numbers 
differ.)  Describe  the  inside  of  the  room.  How  are 
the  seeds  packed  in  it  ?  (They  will  notice  that  the 
pointed  end  of  every  seed  points  toward  the  center.) 
Of  what  use  are  the  scales  to  the  seeds  ?  (They  shut 
them  away  from  the  rest  of  the  apple,  keeping  them 
safe,  no  matter  how  juicy  the  apple  or  watery  the 
core.)  Give  to  each  child  an  apple  cut  horizontally 
through  the  center.  How  many  rooms  in  each  apple 
core  ?  Notice  how  the  five  rooms  are  arranged  about 
the  center.  Show  at  the  board. 

With  what  are  these  rooms  surrounded  ?  Of  what 
use  is  the  pulp  to  the  seeds  ?  ( It  shuts  them  in  until 
they  (and  the  pulp  as  well)  are  ripe.)  What  other 
uses  for  the  pulp  ? 

Now  it  is  strange  that  the  part  of  the  apple  that 
you  do  not  care  about  —  the  seeds  in  the  core  —  the 


THE   APPLE  179 

apple  tree  cares  most  for  and  has  taken  the  greatest 
of  pains  to  protect.  Can  you  think  why  ?  (That  the 
seeds  may  make  more  apple  trees.)  Is  it  or  is  it  not 
well  for  the  seeds  that  you  like  the  pulp  ?  (By  eat- 
ing the  pulp  from  the  core  the  apple  seeds  are  set 
free ;  they  could  not  grow  inside  the  apple.)  Why  is 
it  well  for  apple  seeds  that  there  are  many  different 
kinds  of  apples  ?  (They  suit  the  different  tastes  of 
different  people,  and  so  a  large  number  of  people  all 
over  the  country  are  setting  apple  seeds  free.)  What 
other  uses  are  made  of  the  pulp  ?  (It  is  stewed,  fried, 
made  into  pies,  dumplings,  salads,  jelly,  preserves, 
etc.,  and  it  is  dried.) 

What  besides  people  like  apples  ?  Do  the  chickens 
eat  the  seeds  ?  Find  out  if  this  is  so.  What  part  of 
the  apple  do  the  pigs  eat  ?  What  eat  the  apples  that 
are  left  on  the  trees  in  the  winter  ? 

How  do  the  apples  make  known  to  us  that  their 
seeds  are  ripe  and  ready  to  be  set  free  ?  (Their 
bright  colors  —  red,  yellow,  green,  and  russet-brown  — 
attract  us.)  How  can  the  green  apples  attract  us 
while  the  leaves  are  still  green  ?  (They  are  glossy 
and  are  of  a  different  shade  of  green  from  the  leaves.) 
What  gives  the  color  to  the  apple  ?  (Its  skin.)  De- 
scribe the  skin.  (It  is  thin,  smooth,  glossy,  tough, 


l8O      NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

and  somewhat  elastic.)  Of  what  use  is  it  other  than 
being  the  sign  which  says,  "  I  am  ripe  "  ?  (It  holds 
the  pulp  in  shape,  keeps  it  from  being  broken  and 
rubbed  off,  holds  in  the  juice.)  Why  is  it  well  that 
it  is  somewhat  elastic  ?  (It  does  not  readily  crack 
when  the  apple  falls.) 

How  is  the  apple  fastened  to  the  twig  ?  To  what 
part  of  the  twig  is  it  fastened  ?  Notice  the  stem. 
Chew  it  a  little.  Of  what  is  it  made  ?  (Of  many 
little  threads  or  fibers.)  These  are  much  stronger 
than  one  large  single  piece  would  be. 

What  color  are  the  apples  before  they  are  ripe? 
Why  do  you  think  this  is  well  ?  (They  are  of  nearly 
the  same  shade  as  the  leaves,  and  so  are  not  noticed 
much  by  people  who  are  passing  and  by  birds.) 
What  is  the  color  of  the  seeds  of  an  unripe  apple  ? 
How  does  the  pulp  feel  ? 

How  do  the  apples  begin  life  ?  We  will  find  this 
out  next  spring.  We  will  begin  watching  a  tree  now 
—  and  look  at  it  every  week  until  we  find  some  little 
apples.  What  do  you  see  on  the  tree  now?  (Buds.) 
Describe  the  buds. 

NOTE. —  Before  the  subject  is  left,  review  it  thoroughly.  Have 
the  children  tell  all  they  have  learned  about  the  seeds ;  their 
rooms  ;  the  pulp ;  the  skin ;  the  stem. 


THE    AUSTRIAN    PINE  l8l 

X 

THE  AUSTRIAN   PINE 

(A  WINTER  STUDY) 

Did  the  Christmas  tree  surprise  you  on  Christ- 
mas eve?  What  did  it  bring  you  that  you  did 
not  expect?  When  the  presents  were  all  off  and 
the  decorations  removed,  had  it  any  more  sur- 
prises for  you?  You  did  not  care  for  the  bare 
tree,  then.  This  bare  tree  which  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  Christmas  tree  has  greater  surprises  for  you 
than  the  presents  gave.  It  is  full  of  secrets  which 
few  people  find  out.  Would  you  like  to  find  some 
of  them  out,  all  by  yourselves? 

But  we  must  become  better  acquainted  with 
the  tree  before  we  expect  it  to  tell  us  any  secrets, 
and  we  will  visit  one  that  has  not  been  cut  down. 
What  kind  of  tree  was  the  Christmas  tree? 
Why  was  an  evergreen  chosen  ?  What  was  its 
name?  Do  you  think  all  evergreen  trees  are  alike? 
[The  children  find  out  by  examining  the  foliage  of 
different  evergreen  trees  that  they  differ  greatly. 
Other  differences  will  be  discovered  later.] 

We  will  visit  the  tree  with  the  long,  stiff 
needles.  I  will  introduce  you  to  it.  Austrian 


1 82     NATURE   STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

Pine,  these  are  my  little  boys  and  girls  who  wish 
to  visit  you  often. 

On  this  first  day  the  children  learn  to  distin- 
guish the  Austrian  pine  from  other  evergreen 
trees  by  its  general  appearance.  They  know  it 
by  the  shade  of  green  of  its  dress ;  by  its  straight, 
pointed  trunk ;  by  its  arms  or  branches,  which  extend 
out  nearly  straight  from  the  trunk,  then  curve  up- 
ward ;  by  several  branches  starting  out  from 
the  same  circle  and  reaching  out  in  different  di- 
rections ;  by  gradual  shortening  of  the  branches 
from  below  upward.  After  learning  to  recognize 
the  tree  readily,  the  children  make  drawings, 
showing  its  general  shape.  This  is  the  picture  of 
the  naked  tree  as  it  looked  after  it  had  lost  its 
leaves  in  the  story  of  "The  Unhappy  Pine  Tree."1 
Is  it  pretty?  What  gives  beauty  to  the  tree?  Its 
dress.  And  this  is  a  wonderful  dress.  Let  us 
see  of  what  it  is  made.  [Each  child  has  a  small 
twig.]  (It  is  made  of  needles.  And  the  needles 
are  put  up  in  bundles,  only  two  in  a  bundle.  The 
wrapper  which  holds  them  together  is  around  one 
end  only.) 

1  "  Classic  Stories  for  the  Little  Ones,"  published  by  Public  School 
Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois. 


THE   AUSTRIAN   PINE  183 

Let  us  look  at  one  needle.  [The  children  measure 
it.]  It  is  longer  than  a  darning  needle  and  of  differ- 
ent shape,  being  round  on  the  outside  and  nearly  flat 
on  the  inside.  It  is  very  strong.  We  can  hardly 
pull  it  in  two.  Is  it  well  that  the  pine  tree  has  such 
needles  ?  [Refer  to  the  story  of  "  The  Unhappy  Pine 
Tree."]  Not  only  goats  but  caterpillars  and  insects 
usually  pass  the  leaves  of  this  tree  by.  Hail,  snow, 
and  sleet  cannot  injure  them  much.  Why  not? 

Pull  out  one  pair  of  needles.  [The  children 
find  that  it  is  set  very  deeply  and  firmly  into  the 
twig.]  Why  is  this  well?  [The  children  discover 
that  the  needles  in  a  package  so  fit  together  as  to 
resemble  in  shape  a  darning  needle.]  Where  on  the 
twig  are  they  set  ?  Do  you  like  that  arrangement  ? 
Why  ?  Does  the  Austrian  pine  ever  lose  its  leaves 
as  do  the  maples  and  oaks  ?  How  do  you  know  ? 
When  do  they  fall  ?  Do  they  fall  singly  or  in  pairs  ? 
What  color  are  they  when  they  fall?  Do  you  see 
any  such  on  the  tree  now  ?  If  so,  where  ?  How  old 
are  the  needles  when  they  fall?  You  cannot  tell 
now.  You  do  not  know  it  well  enough  yet  to  find 
out  all  its  secrets.  Now  tell  all  the  secrets  you  do 
know  about  the  package  of  needles.  Make  a  drawing 
of  them.  What  secret  has  the  tree  failed  to  tell  you  ? 


1 84     NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY   GRADES 

We  have  been  talking  about  the  Austrian  pine's 
dress.  Does  it  wear  any  ornaments  ?  (The  cones.) 
Where  does  it  wear  them  ?  Notice  this  carefully. 
Are  they  all  alike  ?  [Have  twigs  in  the  class  with 
cones  of  last  summer's  growth  and  others  a  year 
older.]  Notice  color  and  size  of  each,  the  number  in 
a  cluster  (if  you  are  so  fortunate  as  to  find  two  or 
three  together).  Notice  cones  under  the  trees  and 
compare  them  with  those  on  the  twig.  Do  you  find 
on  the  ground  any  of  the  little  cones?  Why  not? 
Their  work  is  not  done.  The  leaves  on  the  elms  and 
maples  did  not  leave  the  tree  until  their  work  was 
done,  neither  will  the  little  cones. 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out  what  the  work  of  the 
cones  is.  The  cones  that  have  seen  two  summers 
are  chosen.  Where  on  the  twig  did  we  find  them  ? 
Draw  the  cone  when  first  brought  into  the  room. 
Draw  also  the  twig  with  the  cone  upon  it,  fixing  its 
place  on  the  twig.  [The  children  notice  the  queer 
shapes  of  the  doors  with  their  comical  little  knobs ; 
they  also  notice  how  each  door  is  braced  in  front  by 
two  doors  at  its  side  and  one  before  it.  The  doors 
are  very  many,  and  are  closed  so  tightly  that  it  is 
with  great  trouble  that  we  get  them  open.]  Will 
the  cone  not  let  us  know  what  she  is  guarding  so 


THE   AUSTRIAN   PINE  18$ 

carefully?  We  will  not  break  into  her  house.  We 
will  lay  these  cones  where  we  can  watch  them.  [If 
possible,  the  children  should  hear  and  see  the  doors 
pop  open.  This  will  happen  after  they  have  been 
in  the  warm  room  a  few  hours.]  Now  that  the 
cone  has  opened  her  doors  we  will  look  in  and  see 
if  we  can  find  what  secret  she  was  keeping.  [The 
children  discover  two  little  seeds  behind  each  door, 
each  with  a  large  wing.]  How  cozily  they  lie  in  the 
little  room  !  They  are  well  worth  guarding.  Why? 
Why  were  they  shut  in  so  tightly  ?  What  will  open 
the  doors  of  the  cones  on  the  trees?  (The  sun.) 
When  will  they  open?  What  will  the  seeds  do 
then  ?  How  will  the  wing  help  them  ?  The  tiny 
cones  are  placed  also  in  the  warm  room  and  left 
there  for  some  time.  Why  do  they  not  open? 

Some  old  cones  may  be  found  with  their  doors 
open.  Inside  are  no  good  seeds.  Why  is  that  so? 
(The  seeds  flew  away  last  spring  when  the  warm  sun 
opened  the  doors.)  [The  children  now  make  a  draw- 
ing of  the  twig  with  cones  of  two  sizes.  They  tell 
the  secrets  of  the  cones.  They  draw  a  single  door 
with  the  two  seeds,  and  one  seed  by  itself,  and  tell 
the  secret  of  the  seeds.  A  number  of  seeds  are  kept 
for  planting  when  spring  shall  come.] 


1 86     NATURE    STUDY    LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

What  else  do  we  find  on  the  branch  besides  leaves 
and  cones  ?  (Buds.)  On  what  part  of  the  twig  do 
you  find  these  buds?  Are  all  of  the  same  shape? 
[The  children  find  that  some  are  large  and  pointed, 
others  are  round  and  flat,  while  others  are  made  up 
of  a  cluster  of  little  buds.]  Why  this  difference  ? 
Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out.  [A  pointed  bud  is  first 
examined.  The  children  notice  how  the  lower  scales 
curve  downward.  (If  kept  in  a  warm  room,  more  of 
the  scales  will  turn  down.)  They  also  notice  the 
great  number  of  coverings.]  Are  they  thick  or 
thin  ?  Soft  or  harsh  ?  How  arranged  ?  All  of  the 
same  length  ?  How  held  together  ?  [The  pitch 
shows  itself  after  being  kept  in  a  warm  room  some 
time.]  The  covers  being  carefully  removed,  the 
children  are  delighted  to  find  what  they  think 
is  a  cone.  But  where  on  the  twig  did  we  find 
the  cones  ?  (On  the  sides,  but  this  is  directly  at  the 
end.)  What  does  grow  at  the  end  of  a  twig? 
Leaves  on  a  stem.  What  then  should  you  expect 
to  find  in  this  bud  ?  We  will  put  this  little  bare  bud,  ; 
with  a  covered  one,  into  this  bottle  of  alcohol.  It ' 
will  keep  them  fresh.  How  shall  we  label  it  ?  We 
will  say  we  do  not  know  what  this  is.  But  what  do 
you  think  it  ought  to  be  ?  It  is  another  secret  which 


THE   AUSTRIAN    PINE 

we  can  not  find  out  until  we  know  the  tree  better. 
What  was  the  first  secret  kept  from  us  ?  When  may 
we  surely  know  the  secret  of  the  bud  ?  Tell  the 
secrets  which  you  know  of  the  pointed  buds,  and 
the  one  which  the  tree  is  keeping  from  you,  but 
which  you  think  you  can  guess. 

Now,  let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out  the  secret  of  the 
round,  flat  buds.  [The  children  find  that  the  outside 
covers  are  much  like  those  of  the  pointed  buds,  but 
inside  of  a  few  covers  they  find  from  five  to  ten  tiny 
buds  crowded  all  the  way  around  a  small,  pointed 
bud.  The  inside  covers  are  soft  and  transparent. 
When  uncovered,  the  children  are  apt  to  think  they 
have  again  found  cones.  ]  But  where  do  we  find 
these  buds  ?  Do  you  find  such  clusters  of  cones  on 
the  tree  ?  [The  children  notice  the  resemblance  be- 
tween the  pointed  bud  in  the  center  here  and  the 
pointed  bud  we  examined  before.  They  tell  what 
they  think  this  bud  contains  and  what  they  think 
may  grow  from  the  center  bud.]  The  naked,  tiny 
buds  are  placed  in  alcohol  with  a  bud  as  we  found  it 
on  the  tree.  What  shall  we  label  it  ? 

There  is  still  another  kind  of  bud,  a  clustered 
bud,  not  covered  to  appear  like  a  single  bud  as  was 
the  preceding.  Does  it  contain  a  pointed  bud? 


1 88     NATURE   STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

Where  on  the  twig  was  it  found  ?  On  what  kind  of 
twig?  [These  buds  are  also  preserved.]  Are  there 
any  other  kinds  of  buds  ?  [The  bottles  of  buds  are 
numbered,  and  the  children  from  now  till  spring 
frequently  review  their  knowledge  of  these  buds 
and  their  suppositions  in  regard  to  them.] 

This  branch  on  which  the  needles  and  buds 
and  cones  grew  may  have  something  to  tell  us. 
Notice  carefully  the  curled-back  covers  of  this 
pointed  bud.  Do  you  find  anything  like  this  on 
the  twig?  Where?  How  do  you  suppose  those  scales 
came  there?  [The  children  are  quick  to  catch  the 
idea  that  the  bud  left  them  when  it  began  to 
grow.]  What  did  it  grow  into?  (A  little  twig.) 
How  long?  [The  children  usually  suggest  that 
that  is  exactly  what  this  pointed  bud  will  grow 
into.]  If  so,  what  must  that  be  in  the  pointed  bud? 
(A  little  twig  packed  away  in  a  very  small  trunk.) 
And  what  was  the  green  that  you  saw  in  the 
bud  ?  (The  leaves.)  How  long  did  it  take  this 
three  or  four  inches  of  twig  to  grow?  (A  year.) 
[The  children  see  that  it  must  have  taken  many 
years  for  the  tree  to  become  so  large  at  that  rate 
of  growth.]  Look  back  and  see  if  you  can  find 
where  another  bud  started.  How  old  is  that  part 


THE   AUSTRIAN    PINE  189 

of  the  twig?  Find  another  year's  growth.  An- 
other. Still  another.  Are  there  leaves  on  last 
year's  growth?  On  the  second?  On  the  third? 
On  the  fourth?  On  the  fifth?  [Sometimes  they 
will  find  the  leaves  mostly  or  wholly  gone  from 
the  five  years'  growth,  and  sometimes  there  are 
leaves  on  the  six-year-old  twig.]  Where  did  the 
brown  leaves  go?  How  old  when  they  fell?  What 
did  they  leave  behind  to  show  that  they  had  been 
here?  (A  queer  little  three-cornered  card,  often 
turned  down  at  the  top.) 

Notice  the  twigs  with  the  round  flat  buds,  or  the 
large  clustered  ones.  [The  children  find  the  year's 
growth  there  to  measure  only  from  three  fourths  of 
an  inch  to  an  inch.]  Why  so  much  shorter  than  on 
twigs  with  long  pointed  buds?  (Its  food  had  to  be 
divided  with  those  little  stranger  buds  that  clustered 
around  it,  so  it  could  not  grow  so  much.) 

Did  you  ever  try  to  break  a  twig  or  a  branch 
from  an  Austrian  pine  ?  Was  it  easily  done  ?  After 
a  snow  storm  the  teacher  takes  occasion  to  call 
the  attention  of  the  children  to  the  beautiful  but 
sad  appearance  of  the  tree.  Its  branches  no  more 
reach  up  toward  the  sky,  but  droop  to  the  earth. 
It  seems  as  if  the  tree  could  never  hold  itself  up 


IQO     NATURE    STUDY   LESSONS    FOR   PRIMARY    GRADES 

as  it  did  before  the  storm.  The  children  make  a 
drawing  of  it  now  and  compare  this  picture  with 
the  first  one  drawn.  Why  does  not  the  heavy 
snow  break  off  the  branches?  Show  sections  of 
the  tree  where  branches  have  grown  out,  that  the 
children  may  see  how  well  the  tree  guards  against 
such  accidents. 

What  secrets  have  you  found  out  about  the  twig 
and  branch?  You  may  draw  a  branch  of  seven  years' 
growth.  [If  they  have  observed  carefully  they 
will  put  no  needles  on  the  oldest  growth,  and  per- 
haps none  on  the  sixth  or  fifth.]  But  here  are  side 
shoots.  From  what  did  they  come?  Notice  where 
they  start  out.  From  what  buds  did  they  come? 
Can  you  tell?  Then  we  must  also  find  this  out  next 
spring.  Can  you  tell  yet  from  what  the  cones  will 
come?  We  shall  have  to  watch  the  tree  closely  next 
spring,  else  it  will  keep  this  secret  from  us.  Now 
what  are  all  the  secrets  which  the  Austrian  pine  is 
keeping  from  us  this  winter? 

Do  you  like  this  tree?  What  do  you  like  about 
it?  It  is  a  useful  tree,  too.  For  what  is  it  used? 
(For  lumber.)  [Children  name  articles  made  from 
pine.]  (The  birds  come  to  its  shelter  when  they 
return  early  in  the  spring.  The  winter  birds  — 


THE   AUSTRIAN    PINE  IQI 

crows,  owls,  etc.,  —  spend  much  time  in  its  branches, 
which  shelter  them  from  the  cold  winds.) 

As  a  summing  up  of  many  facts  discovered  in 
regard  to  the  Austrian  pine,  and  a  reminder  of 
their  pleasant  acquaintance  with  it,  a  collection 
of  the  following  may  be  mounted  on  stiff  card- 
board: A  pair  of  green  leaves,  a  pointed  bud,  a 
round  flat  bud,  an  open  clustered  bud,  cones  of 
one,  two,  and  three  seasons'  growth  (the  cone 
of  two  seasons  will  need  to  be  varnished  to  keep 
it  from  opening),  a  cone  scale,  two  seeds,  a  bare 
twig,  a  twig  with  leaves,  cross  and  vertical  sections 
of  the  wood. 


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